Final Exam Flashcards by Bailey Sturdivant

receives and transmits impulses to and from the CNS

PNS

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specialized to respond to input (stimuli)

sensory receptors

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responds to mechanical force

mechanoreceptors

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responds to temperature changes

thermoreceptors

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responds to light

photoreceptors

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responds to chemicals in solution

chemoreceptors

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responds to damaging stimuli

nociceptors

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responds to external stimuli (on skin’s surface)

exteroceptors

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responds to internal stimuli

interoceptors (visceroceptors)

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responds to change in body position (due to stretch); in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons; a type of interoceptor

proprioceptors

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abundant in epithelial and connective tissue; modified dendritic endings of sensory neurons

nonencapsulated (free) nerve endings

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respond to temperature changes, chemical changes, pain, pressure

free nerve endings

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found in deepest layer of epidermis (stratum basal); respond to light touch

tactile (Merkel) discs

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respond to light touch; wound around a hair follicle

hair follicle receptors

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almost all are mechanoreceptors; one or more axon terminal enclosed in a tissue capsule

encapsulated nerve endings

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respond to light touch

Meissner’s (tactile) corpuscles

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respond to deep pressure when first applied; in subcutaneous tissue

Pacinian (lamellar) corpuscles

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respond to deep, continuous pressure

Ruffini endings (bulbous corpuscles)

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respond to muscle stretch, length

muscle spindles

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respond to tendon stretch; found in tendons close to insertion

tendon organs

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respond to stretch of articular capsules; include free nerve endings, Pacinian corpuscles; tendon organs; Ruffini endings

joint kinesthetic receptors

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How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?

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cranial nerve that runs from the nose, through Ethmoid bone, to olfactory areas (sensory)

olfactory

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cranial nerve - posterior to olfactory (sensory - to visual areas of brain - info from photoreceptors))

optic

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cranial nerve that extends from midbrain to the eye and controls eyeball movement (motor)

oculomotor

cranial nerve - efferent to eye; eyeball movement (motor)

trochlear

largest cranial nerve; from pons to face; afferent - touch, pain, pressure, temperature (sensory and motor - motor muscles effected in chewing)

trigeminal

cranial nerve - pons to eye; motor efferent; eyeball movement

abducens

cranial nerve - pons to face; innervate glands to affect secretion (sensory - taste; motor - facial expression)

facial

cranial nerve - hearing and sense of equilibrium (sensory)

acoustic (vestibulocochlear)

cranial nerve - to pharynx (sensory - taste; motor - saliva secretion - innervate to afferent secretion)

glossopharyngeal

cranial nerve - extends from medulla to chest and abdomen; only one that extends beyond head and neck; innervates heart, abdomen, lungs (affects breathing, digestion, etc.) (sensory - taste; motor - main autonomic nerve)

vagus

cranial nerve - branches from vagus nerve; innervates muscles of neck to affect head and neck movement (motor)

spinal accessory

cranial nerve - extends from medulla to tongue (motor - efferent that affects tongue movement - swallowing, chewing, speech)

hypoglossal

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

spinal nerve anatomy: within vertebral column; attach along the length of spinal cord segment (merge into dorsal or ventral root)

rootlets

spinal nerve anatomy: within vertebral column ________ root - sensory (afferent fibers) ________ root - motor (efferent fibers)

dorsal | ventral

spinal nerve anatomy: outside of vertebral column _______ - dorsal branch _______ - ventral branch

dorsal ramus | ventral ramus

spinal nerve anatomy: outside of vertebral column | branch that reenters spinal cord into meninges

meningeal branch

spinal nerve anatomy: outside of vertebral column | autonomic nerve fibers that attach to ventral rami

rami communicates

spinal nerve anatomy: outside of vertebral column | interlacing nerve networks formed from ventral rami (along spinal cord except ventral rami coming from thoracic nerves

nerve plexuses

``` How many pairs are there? cervical nerves thoracic nerves lumbar nerves sacral nerves coccygeal nerves ```

``` 8 12 5 5 1 ```

What are the 5 plexuses?

1. cervical 2. brachial 3. lumbar 4. sacral 5. thoracic nerves (not a plexus)

plexus: C1-C4; sensory info from skin, neck, head, and shoulders; most of the branches are cutaneous nerves (neck, ear, back of head and shoulder); phrenic nerve

cervical plexus

innervates the diaphragm (breathing); C1-C5; sensory and motor neurons that are in the diaphragm to regulate breathing

phrenic nerve

plexus: | C5-C8 and T1; innervates upper limbs

brachial plexus

do not form a plexus; intercostal nerves

thoracic nerves

innervate intercostal muscles, skin and muscles of abdominal wall

intercostal nerves

plexus: | L1-L4; femoral nerve; obturator nerve

lumbar plexus

innervates thigh muscles, skin of legs; motor (efferent) branches that innervate quad muscles; branches also innervate skin, thigh, and legs

femoral nerve

enters the medial thigh via the obturator foramen; innervates the adductor muscles of the inner thigh

obturator nerve

plexus: | L4-S4; innervates buttocks, lower limbs, and pelvic structures; sciatic nerve

sacral plexus

innervates lower limbs

sciatic nerve

pressure or injury to sciatic nerve, causes tingling

sciatica

Autonomic nervous system: Characteristics 1. What are the 3 effectors? 2. What are the 2 neurons in the chain that makes up the efferent pathway?

1. cardiac muscles, smooth muscle, glands 2. preganglionic neuron (first) 2. postganglionic neuron (second)

rest and digest; keep energy low and allow digestion and waste production to occur; decreases heart rate, regulate secretion from gland; controls pupils; craniosacral nerves; long preganglionic axons and short postganglionic axons; most ganglia located in the effector

parasympathetic nervous system

arise from cranium; contain both sacral and cranial nerves

craniosacral nerves

fight or flight; increase heart rate, dilate pupils, reduce nonessential activities; constricts blood vessels - sends blood to organs that need it; deepens breathing rate; effectors are innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic NS; thoracolumbar nerves; short preganglionic axons, long postganglionic axons; ganglia close to spinal cord

sympathetic NS

arise from thoracic and lumbar nerves

throacolumbar nerves

neurotransmitter that includes: parasympathetic preganglionic neurons parasympathetic postganglionic neurons sympathetic preganglionic neurons

acetylcholine (Ach)

release Ach and norepinephrine and epinephrine

parasympathetic preganglionic neurons

innervates adrenal medulla (on top of kidneys)

sympathetic preganglionic neurons

Preganglionic neurons always release _____.

Ach

neurotransmitter that includes sympathetic postganglionic neurons

norepinephrine

What is the effector of the somatic nervous system?

skeletal muscle

Which neurotransmitter is in the somatic NS?

acetylcholine

Which neurotransmitters are in the autonomic nervous system?

Ach & norepinephrine (NE)

What are the efferent pathways of the somatic NS?

cell bodies of motor neurons in CNS, axons extend to skeletal muscles

innervates smooth muscles in the eyes

oculomotor nerve

innervate glands in the head (ex. nasal lacrimal salivary)

facial nerve

innervate salivary glands

glossopharyngeal nerve

fibers to neck and nerve plexuses, innervates many organs in thoracic and abdominal cavities

vagus nerve

innervates heart

cardiac plexus

innervates lungs and bronchi

pulmonary plexus

innervates esophagus

esophageal plexus

innervates many organs in abdominal cavity

abdominal aorta plexus

innervates part of large intestine, urinary bladder, ureters, reproductive organs

pelvic splanchnic nerves

sympathetic fibers in thoracolumbar nerves: | Preganglionic fibers exit the spinal cord via the _____

ventral root

sympathetic fibers in thoracolumbar nerves: | Pass through ___________. ___________ (chain ganglia) on either side of vertebral column.

rami communicates | sympathetic trunk

3 potential pathways from sympathetic trunk: 1. Axon synapses with ________ neuron in same trunk ganglion. 2. Axon ______ or ______ within trunk and synapses with postganglionic neuron in another trunk ganglion. 3. Axon passes through ________ without synapsing with postganglionic neuron there.

1. postganglionic 2. ascends/descends 3. trunk ganglion

Parasympathetic and sympathetic NS have opposite effects on ________. Example: Heart = parasympathetic ________ heart rate, sympathetic _________ heart rate; gastrointestinal organs = parasympathetic _____ digestion, sympathetic _______ digestion

``` target tissue decrease increase stimulate inhibit ```

Parasympathetic and sympathetic NS work ________. Ex. external genitalia = parasympathetic induces _________, sympathetic causes ________.

together erection of penis ejaculation

Some effectors only are innervated by the _______NS, ex. adrenal gland, sweat glands, arrector pili muscles of skin, most blood vessels

sympathetic

classification of neurotransmitters (depends on where they are binding/type of receptor): hyperpolarization of membrane

inhibiting

classification of neurotransmitter (depends on where they are binding/type of receptor): depolarization of membrane

stimulatory

When Ach binds to receptors in the somatic NS, it always _______.

stimulates

receptor types: 1. binds Ach 2. binds norephinephrine and epinephrine; effectors innervated by sympathetic neurons

1. cholinergic | 2. adrenergic

receptor: | all postganglionic neurons (in parasympathetic and sympathetic NS); adrenal medulla; always stimulatory

nicotinic (N) receptor

receptor: effectors innervated by parasympathetic neurons; stimulatory or inhibitory

muscarinic (M) receptor

What are the 2 types of cholinergic receptors?

1. nicotinic receptor | 2. muscarinic receptor

What are the two subtypes of adrenergic receptors?

1. alpha 2. beta (stimulatory or inhibitory based on subtype and whether alpha or beta)

drug that blocks receptors in autonomic NS: binds to nicotinic receptors (sympathetic effectors); stimulates sympathetic effects; can lead to cardiac disease because it increases BP and leading to hypertension

nicotine

drug that blocks receptors in autonomic NS: blocks muscarinic receptors; leads to blocking parasympathetic reactions - sympathetic results take over; used in eyedrops to dilate pupil

atropine

drug that blocks receptors in autonomic NS: blocks beta receptors; in sympathetic NS; decrease heart rate and BP; treat/prevent migraines; control abnormal heart rhythms

beta-blockers

drug that blocks receptors in autonomic NS: inhibits acetylcholinesterase; prevents breakdown of acetylcholine in synapse; Ach can remain bound to N and M receptors; patients that have Masythenia Gravis (keeps Ach bound to existing receptors to help compensate for lack of receptors)

neostigmine

drugs that block receptors in autonomic NS: | sympathomimetic; sympathetic neurotransmitters; restricts and causes mucus reduction (decongestion)

phenylephrine; pseudoephedrine

drug that blocks receptors in autonomic NS: | parasympathomimetic (M receptors); mimics in parasympathetic NS

pilocarpine

outermost layer of eye; white part of eye; shape, protect; dense CT; place for eye muscles to attach

sclera

anterior, modified part of sclera; clear, allows light to enter the eye

cornea

middle layer of the eye; contains melanin; absorbs light; rich in blood vessels - provide nutrients

choroid

smooth muscles controlling lens shape; anterior part of choroid layer; light focus on the retina

ciliary body

colored part of eye; only contains melanin (brown-black pigment); two layers of smooth muscle that can change shape of pupil to control about of light coming into the eye

iris

allows light to enter the eye; hole

pupil

innermost layer of the eye; contains pigmented epithelial cells, photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells

retina

where optic nerve exits eye (blind spot)

optic disc

spot in the eye where there are no photoreceptors

blind spot

oval region in posterior of eye

macula lutea

center of macula lute; lots of cones; no retina around it; light can go directly to photoreceptors

fovea centralis

segment of eye filled with vitreous humor; helps support the eye and pressure in the eye

posterior segment

segment of the eye filled with aqueous humor; contributes to pressure and provides nutrients to eye and lens

anterior segment

flexible, transparent, biconvex disc in eye; changes where light is focused on retina

lens

photoreceptor for dim light and peripheral vision; rhodopsin (opsins + retinal) - purple pigment of rods; not good for sharpness or color; more of these that other type of photoreceptor

rods

photoreceptor for bright light and high acuity color vision; blue, red, and green; all contain opsin + retinal (light absorbing molecule - derived from vitamin A)

cones

Vision: Light stimulates _________ and changes shape of ______. Signals spread to _________ (no action potential yet, just change in MP). Signals spread to ganglion cells (still change in MP). Ganglion cells generate ________, which is conducted along the optic nerve to the __________ of the occipital lobe.

``` photoreceptors opsins bipolar cells action potential primary visual cortex ```

What are the 3 major ear regions?

1. external ear 2. middle ear 3. internal ear

funnels sound into the ear (elastic cartilage)

pinna

ear wax is found here

external acoustic meatus

_______ glands produce ear wax.

ceruminous

separates external ear from middle ear (ear drum)

tympanic membrane

What are the 3 ear ossicles located in the middle ear?

1. malleus 2. stapes 3. incus

connects middle ear to nasopharynx (when open, it allows pressure in the middle lear to be equal to the external environment

pharyngotympanic (Eustachian) tube

openings to inner ear

oval and round windows

channels in temporal bone, contains perilymph

bony labyrinth

fluid similar to CSF that conducts sound vibrations

perilymph

equilibrium receptors (pull of gravity and detecting our head's position)

vestibule

inferior to vestibule, channel that contains hearing receptors

cochlea

posteriolateral to cochlea, contain equilibrium receptors that detect head's position

semicircular canals

sacs and ducts within bony labyrinth, contains endolymph

membranous labyrinth

structurally similar to intracellular fluid and conducts sound vibrations for hearing

endolymph

Hearing: Sounds create ________, go through _______. These cause the ________ to vibrate. Frequency of vibration is directly linked to ________ of sound. Ear ossicles transmit and amplify the vibrations to the __________. Vibrations displace fluid in ______ creating waves, which stimulates _________ receptors (cochlea hair cells). Nerves transmit electrical impulse to ________ of temporal lobe.

``` pressure waves external acoustic meatus tympanic membrane intensity oval window cochlea hearing primary auditory cortex ```

Trace the pathway of light through the eye.

light enters eye ---> cornea ---> aqueous humor ---> lens ------->vitreous humor ---> neutral layer of retina

normal, focal point on retina

emmetropic eye

eyeball too long; causes myopia (nearsightedness)

myopic eye

eyeball too short; causes hyperopia (farsightedness)

hyperopic eye

unequal curvatures of different parts of cornea or lens

astigmatism

clouding of the lens

cataracts

compression of retina and optic nerve due to inadequate draining of aqueous humor

glaucoma

lack of one or more cone pigments

colorblindness

due to deficit or lack of red or green cone pigments

red-green colorblindness

middle ear infection; causes: virus, bacteria, allergies; treatment: antibiotics

otitis media

ringing or clicking sound in absence of noise; causes: inflammation, side effect of medicine (aspirin, certain antibiotics), nerve damage, damage to cochlear hair cells, exposure to loud noise, earwax buildup; treatment: treat underlying condition

tinnitus

sensation of movement or rocking when standing still; causes: inflammation of inner ear (common); treatment: repositioning treatments

vertigo