Exam 1 Flashcards
1
Q
Explain the levels of organization in an organism.
A
- chemical level
- cellular level
- tissue level
- organ level
- organ system level
- organismal level
2
Q
What are the three main themes of this course?
A
- Interconnection between structure and function
- Integrative function
- Adaptive nature of our bodies: interrelationship between environment and body response
3
Q
a set of organs that performs a particular function
A
system
4
Q
regulation of stable internal body functions
A
homeostasis
5
Q
“to cut apart”; study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to each other
A
anatomy
6
Q
how the body functions
A
physiology
7
Q
- Greek physician
- 460-377 BC
- Father of Western Medicine
- First to separate disease from superstition
A
Hippocrates
8
Q
ethical code of conduct for medical professionals
A
Hippocratic Oath
9
Q
established the first university (The Academy); served as a mentor to Aristotle
A
Plato
10
Q
first to perform dissection; plato’s student
A
Aristotle
11
Q
2nd century BC; vivisections of criminals
A
Herophilus & Eristratus
12
Q
129 AD; vivisections of pigs/primates; wrote anatomy textbook used for 1500 years
A
Galen
13
Q
What happened during the Middle Ages?
A
study of anatomy was outlawed
14
Q
What happened during the Renaissance?
A
anatomical interest/knowledge reestablished
15
Q
What happened during the 17th and 18th centuries?
A
anatomists like celebrities; people paid to see dissections in large ampitheaters
16
Q
What are the 2 subdivisions of anatomy?
A
gross (macroscopic)
microscopic
17
Q
study of tissues
A
histology
18
Q
study of cells
A
cytology
19
Q
microscope that shows tissues and beyond (500000X)
A
scanning electron microscope
20
Q
typical microscope used in lab
A
compound light microscope
21
Q
microscope that shows cells and beyond (1000000X)
A
transmission electron microscope
22
Q
Who is associate with the x-ray image?
A
Wilhelm Rontgen
23
Q
In x-ray images, more dense structures show up _____.
A
white
24
Q
In x-ray images, less dense structures show up ______.
A
black
25
diagnostic imaging tool that uses x-rays to look at the brain and abdomen
computed tomography (CT)
26
diagnostic imaging tool that uses sound waves and is used mostly in obstetrics
ultrasound
27
diagnostic imaging tool that uses radio waves and magnets to look at soft tissues
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
28
diagnostic imaging tool that uses radioactive substances to look at the brain and metabolism
positron emission tomography (PET)
29
two sided
bilateral
30
located on same side of body
ipsilateral
31
located on opposite sides of body
contralateral
32
body plane that separates anterior and posterior
frontal
33
1. body plane that separates lateral and medial
2. midline
3. off midline
1. sagittal
2. midsagittal
3. parasagittal
34
body plane that separates superior and inferior
transverse
35
What are the 2 dorsal body cavities?
1. cranial (brain)
| 2. vertebral (spine)
36
What are the 2 main ventral cavities?
1. thorastic
| 2. abdominopelvic
37
What are the 3 parts of the thorastic cavity?
1. pleural
2. mediastinum
3. pericardial
38
What are the 2 parts of the abdominopelvic cavity?
1. abdominal (digestive organs)
| 2. pelvic (urinary, reproductive)
39
What separates the abdominopelvic and thorastic cavities?
diaphram
40
membrane type that is thin and double-layered; lines walls of ventral body cavity and outer surfaces of organs
serosa (serous membranes)
41
inflammation of pleura(e)
pleurisy
42
inflammation of peritoneum
peritonitis
43
the basic structural and functional unit of the body
cell
44
small cells with no nucleus
red blood cells
45
cylindrical, multi-nucleated, long cells
skeletal muscle cells
46
cell body with axon and dendrites
neuron
47
flagellated cells
sperm cells
48
separates inside of cell (intracellular) from outside of cell (extracellular); controls what enters/exits cells; very thin (5-10 nanometers)
plasma/cell membrane
49
The lipid bilayer contains ______, _________, and _______
phospholipids
glycolipids
cholestrol
50
The polar head of a phospholipid is (hydrophilic/hydrophobic)
hydrophilic
51
The non-polar tail of a phospholipid is (hydrophilic/hydrophobic)
hydrophobic
52
lipids with sugar groups attached
glycolipids
53
dynamic assembly of saturated phospholipids, sphingolipids, and cholesterol; on outer membrane surface; important for various functions
lipid rafts
54
What are the 2 plasma membrane proteins?
1. integral proteins
| 2. peripheral proteins
55
plasma membrane proteins that are embedded in the lipid bilayer; most are transmembrane (whole width of lipid bilayer)
integral plasma membrane proteins
56
What are the 5 functions of integral and peripheral plasma membrane proteins?
1. transport
2. receptor
3. enzyme
4. cell junctions
5. cell identity
57
let certain substances pass in/out of cells
channels
58
substance binding; induces conformational change
carrier protein
59
binds substances; relays messages to interior cells
receptor
60
integral proteins of neighboring cells fuse together
tight junctions
61
like "velcro"; protein filaments extend from adjacent cells and link together
desosomes
62
channels of adjacent cells connect
gap junctions
63
signatures on cell that gives it specific identity via glycoproteins
cell identity
64
material between plasma membrane and nucleus
cytoplasm
65
What 2 things are contained in the cytoplasm?
1. cytosol
| 2. organelles
66
thick, semi-transparent, jelly-like fluid; mostly water but also contains proteins, salts/irons, and sugars
cytosol
67
organelle that contains DNA
nucleus
68
organelle that performs cellular respiration; contains its own DNA
mitochondria
69
organelle that makes proteins
ribosomes
70
organelle involved in protein synthesis and packaging; has many functions
endoplasmic reticulum (rough and smooth)
71
organelle that is the processing center and modifies and packages proteins
golgi apparatus
72
organelle that serves as the cleaning crew (enzymes)
lysosomes
73
organelle involved in structural support and cell movements (contains microtubules and microfilaments)
cytoskeleton
74
affects specific enzymes found in lysosomes (specifically nerve cell enzymes); lipids accumulate; nerve cells lose function leading to death (4-5 years lifespan)
Tay Sach's Disease
75
many different types; symptoms from muscle weakness to poor growth, seizures, and organ failure
mitochondrial diseases
76
The plasma membrane is _______ permeable.
selectively (differentially)
77
The way substances move across a membrane depends on the _________.
electrochemical gradient
78
concentration gradient + electrical gradient across plasma membrane and which direction substance needs to go
electrochemical gradient
79
type of transport that does not require ATP
passive transport
80
type of transport that requires ATP
active transport
81
diffusion in which substances pass through the lipid bilayer (lipid soluble molecules, small molecules)
simple diffusion
82
diffusion in which substances move across the membrane by protein channels or carrier proteins (glucose, amino acids, ions)
facilitated diffusion
83
process in which water is moving through a semi-permeable membrane (low to high concentration)
osmosis
84
total concentration of solutes in a solution
osmolarity
85
movement of solutes and water from high pressure to low pressure (faster rate than diffusion and osmosis)
bulk flow (filtration)
86
active transport in which large substances are transported in vesicles
bulk (vesicular) transport
87
bringing a substance into the cell
endocytosis
88
engulfing molecules/bacteria (cell eating)
phagocytosis
89
engulfing water (cell drinking)
pinocytosis
90
removing substances from the cell
exocytosis
91
active transport type that involves ATP and transport proteins to move substances against the concentration gradient (ex. Na+/K+ pump)
primary active transport
92
active transport type in which there is simultaneous movement of 2 substances through transport proteins; one provides energy to move the other
secondary active transport
93
secondary active transport in which the substances are going the same direction
co-transport (symport)
94
secondary active transport in which the substances are going different directions
counter-transport (antiport)
95
the difference in electrical charge across a plasma membrane
membrane potential
96
What is the resting membrane potential?
about -70mV
97
During resting membrane potential, the inside of the cell has an overall _____ charge relative to the outside
negative
98
Na+/K+ pumps (active transport) maintains the _______.
resting membrane potential
99
a group of cells similar in structure that serve a similar, specialized function
tissues
100
What are the 4 major categories of tissues?
1. epithelial (covering)
2. connective (support)
3. muscle (movement)
4. nervous (communication and control)
101
What are the 3 functions of epithelial tissue?
1. covers body surfaces
2. lines body cavities and ducts
3. forms glands
102
What are the 5 functions of connective tissue?
1. protects and supports body and organs
2. binds tissue together
3. stores energy
4. insulates
5. transport substances
103
What is the function of muscle tissue?
allows for movement through active generation of force
104
What is the function of nervous tissue?
initiates, transmits, and interprets impulses that coordinate the body
105
Characteristics of epithelial tissues:
1. cells closely packed with very little ________.
2. all have specialized ____ to ____ contact (tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions)
3. have top (apical surface) and bottom (basal surface) known as ______
4. always attached to _______ tissue via basement membrane
5. no blood supply, so _____
6. high regeneration rate; _______ to replace lost cells
7. specializations include _________ and __________
1. extracellular space
2. cell to cell
3. polarity
4. connective
5. avascular
6. mitosis
7. cilia (ex. nasal cavity and trachea); microvilli (cytoplasmic extensions)(e.g small intestines)
106
Epithelial tissue arrangement:
1. single layer of cells
2. 2+ layers of cells
3. single layer that looks like multiple layers
4. many layers; cells can stretch
1. simple
2. stratified
3. pseudostratified
4. transitional
107
Epithelial tissue shape:
1. scale-like
2. cube
3. column
1. squamous
2. cuboidal
3. columnar
108
Simple squamous epithelium:
1. function (2)
2. location (3)
1. diffusion/filtration
| 2. lining of heart, blood vessels, and ventral body cavity
109
simple cuboidal epithelium:
1. function (2)
2. location (4)
1. secretion/absorption
| 2. kidney tubules, ducts, ovaries, small glands
110
simple columnar epithelium:
1. function (2)
2. location (4)
1. secretion/absorption
| 2. digestive tract, fallopian tubes, gallbladder, upper respiratory tract
111
pseudostratified columnar epithelium:
1. function (1)
2. location (3)
1. secretion (mucous)
| 2. upper respiratory tract, trachea, sperm-carrying ducts
112
stratified squamous epithelium:
1. function (1)
2. location (4)
1. protects underlying tissues
| 2. linings of esophagus, mouth, and vagina; skin (keratinized)
113
stratified cuboidal epithelium:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
1. protection
| 2. ducts of large glands
114
stratified columnar epithelium:
1. function (1)
2. location (2)
1. protection
| 2. male urethra, pharynx
115
transitional epithelium:
1. function (1)
2. location (3)
1. stretches readily
| 2. bladder, ureters, urethra
116
simple squamous epithelium that lines the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
endothelium
117
simple squamous epithelium that makes up the serosa (often in pleural cavity)
mesothelium
118
one or more cells that make and secrete a product
glands
119
glands that produce hormones and secrete into the bloodstream via exocytosis
endocrine glands
120
glands that secrete products onto the body
exocrine glands
121
What are the 2 types of unicellular exocrine glands?
1. mucous cells
| 2. goblet cells
122
What are the 2 functions of unicellular exocrine glands?
1. produce mucin (+ water = mucous) (glycoprotein)
| 2. secrete product by exocytosis
123
exocrine gland type that consists of a duct and secretory unit
multicellular exocrine glands
124
Duct type of multicellular exocrine glands:
1. unbranched duct
2. branched duct
1. simple
| 2. compound
125
secretory unit of multicellular exocrine glands:
1. secretory cells form small sacs
2. secretory cells form tubes
3. alveolar + tubular
1. alveolar (acinar)
2. tubular
3. tubuloalveolar
126
The ________ classification of exocrine glands is based on how the product is secreted.
functional
127
exocrine glands that involve whole membrane budding (ex. sebaceous glands)
holocrine
128
exocrine glands that involve membrane budding
apocrine
129
exocrine glands that secrete their products by exocytosis as they are produced (ex. sweat and salivary glands)
merocrine
130
gel-like substance surrounding the cell; part of extracellular matrix of CT
ground substance
131
fibers found in extracellular matrix of CT made of collagen (a fibrous protein)
collagen fibers
132
fibers found in extracellular matrix of CT made of elastin (a rubber-like protein)
elastic fibers
133
fibers found in extracellular matrix of CT made of collagen (thinnest) (branch extensively)
reticular fibers
134
CT cells that eats foreign molecules (phagocytosis)
macrophages
135
CT cells that secrete fibers until they mature into fibrocytes
fibroblasts
136
CT cells that deal with the immune response
leukocytes (WBC)
137
CT cells that deal with inflammatory response
mast cells
138
fat cell
adipocytes
139
What are the 3 types of loose CT?
1. areolar
2. adipose
3. reticular
140
What are the 3 types of dense CT?
1. regular
2. irregular
3. dense elastic
141
Areolar loose CT:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
3. responsible for _____
1. wraps and cushions organs
2. widely distributed under epithelia of body
3. edema
142
Adipose loose CT:
1. function (3)
2. location (5)
1. provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss; supports and protects organs
2. under skin in subcutaneous tissue. kidneys, eyeballs, abdomen, breasts
143
Babies have mainly _____ adipose tissue, while adults have mainly ______ adipose tissue.
brown, white
144
Reticular loose CT:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
1. fibers form soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types
2. lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, bone marrow, and spleen)
145
dense regular CT:
1. primarily _____ fibers
2. major cell type is ______
3. function (2)
4. location (3)
1. collagen
2. fibroblast
3. attaches muscle to bone or muscle; attaches bone to bone
4. tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses
146
attach bone to bone
ligaments
147
attach muscle to bone
tendons
148
attach muscle to muscle or bone; sheet-like
aponeuroses
149
"plastic wrap" for muscles; wraps muscles with nerve fibers and vessels
fascia
150
dense irregular CT:
1. function (1)
2. location (3)
1. withstands tension exerted in many directions
| 2. joint capsules, dermis of skin, submucosa of digestive tract
151
dense elastic CT:
1. function (1)
2. location (3)
1. allows tissue to recoil after stretching
| 2. walls of large arteries, ligaments assc. with vertebral column, wall of bronchial tubes
152
characteristics of cartilage:
1. matrix = ______ (up to 80% water)
2. avascular = nutrients from blood vessels in ________
3. cells called chondroblasts, which mature into _______
4. can withstand _____ and stress and compression
5. At what developmental stage would the chondroblasts stop secreting matrix?
1. gel-like
2. perichondrium
3. chondrocytes
4. tension
5. late teen
153
What are the 3 types of cartilage?
1. hyaline
2. elastic
3. fibrocartilage
154
hyaline cartilage:
1. function (2)
2. location (6)
1. supports and reinforces
| 2. embryonic skeleton, ends of long bones in joint cavities, costal cartilage of ribs, nose, trachea, larynx
155
elastic cartilage:
1. function (1)
2. location (2)
1. maintains shape of structure while allowing flexibility
| 2. external ear (pinna), epiglottis
156
fibrocartilage:
1. function (1)
2. location (3)
1. tensile strength allows absorption from shock
| 2. intervertebral disks, knee joint, pubis bone
157
characteristics of bone:
1. matrix (_____ salts and ______ fibers)
2. vascularized or avascular?
3. cells called osteoblasts, mature into _______
1. calcium, collagen
2. vascularized
3. osteocytes
158
What are the 2 types of bone?
1. compact
| 2. spongy
159
fundamental unit of bone (Haversian System)
osteon
160
bone matrix rings
lamella
161
spaces in bone containing osteocytes
lacuna
162
Haversian Canal
central canal
163
transverse canals of bone
Volkmann's canal
164
microscopic canals between lacunae
canaliculi
165
thin plates of bone
trabeculae
166
What are the 4 differences between compact and spongy bone?
1. spongy has trabeculae
2. spongy has no osteons
3. spongy has irregular shaped lamella
4. spongy has no central/volkmann's canal
167
the matrix of blood is made up of ______ and is about 90% water
plasma
168
small blood cells with no nucleus (O2 and CO2 transport)
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
169
large nucleated blood cells
white blood cells (leukocytes)
170
What are the 5 types of white blood cells?
1. neutrophils
2. lymphocytes
3. monocytes
4. eosinophils
5. basophils
171
blood clotting part of blood
platelets (thrombocytes)
172
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
1. skeletal
2. cardiac
3. smooth
173
skeletal muscle:
1. function (2)
2. location (1)
3. long, cylindrical, multinucleate, has _______
4. cell membrane of striated muscle fiber cell
5. cytoplasm of skeletal/cardiac muscle
1. voluntary movement; locomotion
2. skeletal muscles attached to bone
3. striations
4. sarcolemma
5. sarcoplasm
174
blood:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
1. transport respiratory gases, nutrients, and waste
| 2. blood vessels
175
cardiac muscle:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
3. branching
4. striated
5. uninucleate
6. What is it's distinguishing feature?
1. contracts to propel blood in circulation
2. heart
6. intercalated disks
176
smooth muscle:
1. function (1)
2. location (1)
3. What shape?
4. central ______
5. striations?
1. propels substances along passageways
2. walls of hollow organs
3. spindle-shaped
4. nuclei
5. no
177
nerve cells
neurons
178
part of neuron that receives and responds to stimuli
dendrites
179
part of neuron that sends electrical impulses throughout the body
axon
180
neurons:
1. function (2)
2. location (1)
1. coordination and communication
| 2. brain and spinal cord
181
different tissues put together to form a specialized function
membrane
182
What are the 4 types of membranes?
1. skin
2. line ventral body cavity and organs
3. line body cavities open to exterior
4. line joint cavities
1. cutaneous
2. serous
3. mucous
4. synovial
183
What is the body's biggest organ?
skin
184
What is the surface area of an individual's skin?
about 20 square feet
185
How many skin cells are lost per minute by an individual?
40,000 - 50,000
186
What weight of skin cells is lost by an individual every year?
about 9 pounds
187
How often does our skin renew itself?
about every 35 days (so by the time a person is 20, their skin has been replaced 200 times)
188
skin + hair + nails + glands
integumentary system
189
What are the 5 functions of the integumentary system?
1. barrier (protects from bacteria, water, uv rays)
2. regulates body temp
3. makes vitamin D
4. excretes waste
5. sensory (lots of sensory receptors)
190
What are the 3 regions of the skin?
1. epidermis
2. dermis
3. hypodermis (superficial fascia)
191
cells that produce keratin (tough protein)
keratinocytes
192
cells that produce melanin (skin color, UV protection)
melanocytes
193
cells that deal with immune functions
dendritic cells
194
sensory receptor cells for touch
tactile cells
195
What are the 5 layers of the epidermis (deep to superficial)?
1. stratum basale (germinativum)
2. stratum spinosum
3. stratum granulosum
4. stratum lucidum (only in soles/palms)
5. stratum corneum
196
characteristics of stratum basale:
1. single layer of _____ or _____ epithelial cells
2. actively _______
3. daughter cells pushed up into stratum ______
4. most designated to become _______
5. some migrate into dermis to form epidermal _______ (e.g. hair, nails)
6. contains ______ and some _____ cells
1. cuboidal or columnar
2. mitotic
3. spinosum
4. keratinocytes
5. derivatives
6. melanocytes and dendritic cells
197
pigment that gives skin its color (red to yellow to brownish black)
melanin
198
Our ancestors oriented in the _____ and originally produced ______ amounts of melanin. Humans that migrated to less sunny areas produced ______ melanin, and thus had a ______ skin color.
tropics; greater; less; lighter
199
genetic disorder in which the melanocytes do not produce melanin; these individuals have pink skin, white hair, and unpigmented irises
albinism
200
characteristics of stratum spinosum (prickly layer):
1. many layers of ______ joined by _______
2. _______ granules
3. _____ cells
4. cells have _______ filaments
1. keratinocytes, desmosomes
2. melanin
3. dendritic
4. pre-keratin
201
characteristics of stratum granulosum (granular layer):
1. ______ layers of keratinocytes
2. first step of ________ occurs here during which cells _____, nucleus and organelles _____, granules _______ (producing glycolipids/keratin), and cells ______.
1. 3-5
| 2. keratinization; flatten; break down; accumulate; die
202
characteristics of stratum lucidum (clear layer):
1. ______ layers of dead keratinocytes (flat)
2. only seen in ______
1. 2-3
| 2. palms/soles
203
characteristics of stratum corneum:
1. ________ layers of dead, flat keratinocytes filled with _____
2. prevents water loss and protects underlying layers from ________
1. 20-30; keratin
| 2. abrasion
204
What are the 2 layers of the dermis?
1. papillary (20%)
| 2. reticular (80%)
205
papillary layer of dermis:
1. what kind of tissue?
2. vascularized or not?
3. what contributes to fingerprints?
4. nerve endings and touch receptors known as what?
1. areolar loose CT
2. highly vascularized
3. dermal ridges
4. meissner's corpuscles
206
reticular layer of dermis:
1. what kind of tissue?
2. what fibers give strength?
3. what fibers stretch and recoil allowing the skin to grow and shrink?
1. dense irregular CT
2. collagen fibers
3. elastic fibers
207
tears in the dermis
stretch marks
208
hypodermis (superficial fascia):
1. not part of ____
2. mostly ____ tissue
3. anchors skin to underlying tissue but is ____ enough to allow ____ of skin
1. skin
2. adipose
3. loose, movement
209
region of hair that sticks out from the skin
shaft
210
region of hair that is in the follicle
root
211
layer of keratinized cells in hair that is heavily keratinized; arranged like overlapping shingles
cuticle
212
layer of keratinized cells in hair that contains hard keratin with injected melanin
cortex
213
layer of keratinized cells in hair that are large and have air spaces
medulla
214
What are the 2 parts of the hair bulb?
1. for hair growth (provides nutrients and signals hair growth)
2. sensory nerve endings
1. papilla
| 2. root hair plexus
215
smooth muscle attached to hair follicle; contracts to erect hair; causes goosebumps
arrector pili
216
part of hair that produces oil
sebaceous gland
217
any type of hair loss; can be caused by: genetics, aging, autoimmune disease, hormonal imbalance, illness, severe stress, medications, malnutrition
alopecia
218
specialized epithelial cells with hard keratin
nails
219
part of nail that extends beyond the distal edge of the fingertip
free edge
220
the visible attached portion of the nail
nail body
221
the proximal edge of the nail that is embedded in the skin
nail root
222
epidermal layers of nail deep to the nail body
nail bed
223
thickened proximal portion of nail bed
nail matrix
224
What type of gland is this?
1. merocrine
2. simple tubular
3. soles, palms, axillary (armpit), and anogenital areas
sweat (sweat) gland
225
What type of gland is this?
1. apocrine/merocrine
2. compound alveolar
mammary (milk)
226
What type of gland is this?
1. holocrine
2. simple alveolar
3. everywhere except soles/palms
4. associated with hair follicles
5. form protective barrier
6. guards against viruses/bacteria
sebaceous glands (oil - sebum)
227
What type of gland is this?
1. holocrine
2. simple tubular
3. ear
ceruminous (wax - cerumen)
228
inherited disease; problem with hemoglobin in RBC; causes retracted gums, skin lesions, scarring, sensitivity to light; fingers, toes, nose disfigurement; garlic makes it worse
porphyria
229
uncontrolled division of skin cells
skin cancer
230
Basal cell carcinoma is the cancer of cells in which epidermal layer? It is slow growing and slow to metastasize
stratum basale
231
Squamous cell carcinoma is cancer of cells in what layer? grows rapidly, can metastasize if not caught early
stratum spinosum
232
melanoma is skin cancer of what layer? can metastasize quickly
stratum basale (melanin)
