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Exercise Physiology > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What is overload

A

Increased capacity of a system in response to training above the level it’s accustomed to (intensity, duration, and/or frequency)

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2
Q

What can too much overload lead to

A

Overreaching or overtraining

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3
Q

What is reversibility

A

The idea that when training is stopped, the training effect is quickly lost

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4
Q

What 3 things is the training effect spepcific to

A

1) Muscle fibers recruited during exercise
2) Trype of contraction (eccentric, concentric, or isometric)
3) Energy system involved (anaerobic vs. aerobic)

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5
Q

What populations sees the greatest improvement after training

A

Individuals with lower fitness (50% increase in VO2max for sedentary adults vs. 10-20% for normal, active subjects and 3-5% for trained athletes)

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6
Q

What percent of VO2max is genetic

A

60% (improvement in VO2max of twins can vary from 0-40%)

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7
Q

What are 2 examples of different genetic responders for training

A

Genotype E (High responders) have ideal genetic makeup for champion endurance athletes and have a relatively high untrained VO2max

Genotype A (Low responders) have a relativey low untrained VO2max and often exhibit limited exercise training response

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8
Q

Is anerboic or aerobic capacity more genetically determined

A

Anaerobic capacity, meaning training can only improve it a little bit due to fast (IIx) fibers being determined in early development

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9
Q

What are 5 adaptations of muscle fibers in response to repeated excitation and contraction in endurance training

A

1) Muscle fiber type (fast -> slow)
2) Increased capillary density around muscle fibers
3) Increased myoglobin content
4) Mitochondrial function (increased volume and turnover)
5) Mitochondrial oxidative enzymes

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10
Q

How does muscle fiber type shift in response to endurance training

A

There is a reduction in parallel sarcomeres for fast fibers and an increase in the number of slow fibers sarcomeres in parallel (magnitude depends on duration, type of training, and genetics)

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11
Q

How does capillary density change in response to endurance training

A

There is an increased number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibers which allows enhanced diffusion of O2 (bc/ same blood flow but more capillaries spread out and slow time in contant w/muscle bed) and improved removal of wastes

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12
Q

How does myoglobin content change in response to endurance training

A

It increases by 75-80% which supports the muscle’s increased capacity for oxidative metabolism

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13
Q

How quickly do mitochondrial changes occur with endurance training

A

Within 5 weeks of training, muscle mitochondria concentrations double (plasticity of mitochondrial density is quite high)

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14
Q

How is the volume of mitochondria changed in response to endurance training

A

The volume of both subsarcolemmal (SS) and intermyofibrillar (IMF) mitochondria increase in muscle fibers to allow improved oxidative capacity and ability to utilize fat as fuel

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15
Q

What is the term for the breakdown of damaged mitochondria

A

Mitophagy

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16
Q

What are the effects of increased mitochondrial volume

A

1) Greater capacity for oxidative phosphorylation bc/ work is spread out w/in each mitochondria while density spreads out work within multiple mitochondria
2) Decreased cytosolic [ADP] due to increased transporters in mitochondrial membrane causing less lactate and H+ formation and less PC depletion (reduces O2 deficit)

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17
Q

What effect does a faster rise in oxygen uptake after onset of work have

A

It means there is less lactate/H+ formation and PC depletion while decreasing the O2 debt

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18
Q

How can carbohydrate availability influence endurance training adaptations

A

Low muscle glycogen positively influences the adaptations by increasing protein synthesis and mitochondria formation through activation of PGC-1alpha (activated by high AMP:ATP ratio)

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19
Q

What are 2 approaches to utilize the effects of reduced glycogen availability on endurance training adaptations

A

1) Restrict dietary carbs (may cause fatigue and limit training)
2) Train 2x a day every other day (2nd session inherently has lower muscle glycogen)

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20
Q

What are 7 cardiovascular adaptations in response to ednurance training

A

1) Increased VO2max
2) Increased cardiac output (due to increased SV)
3) Increased heart size
4) Decreased and submax HR w/little change to max HR and quicker recovery
5) Increased stroke volume
6) Increased blood volume
7) a-vO2 difference

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21
Q

What is the most important factor in improving VO2max with endurance training

A

Intensity (not duration)

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22
Q

What exercise intensity is ideal to show the greatest improvement in VO2max

A

80%

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23
Q

Why does heart size increase with endurance training

A

The cardiac muscle and ventricular volume increase to meet increased work demand

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24
Q

How low can HR be in highly conditioned endurance athletes

A

30-40 bpm

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25
How do improvements in VO2 max depend on the duration of endurance training
Short duration (~4 mos) increases SV while longer duration (~28 mos) increases both SV and a-vO2 difference to improve VO2max
26
How does blood volume change with endurance training (especially at higher intensities)
Increased plasma volume, increased volume of red blood cells, and decreased hematocrit ("pseudoanemia")
27
Why might SV not plateau in elite endurance athletes
Due to improved ventricular filling (at rest due to bradycardia) leading to an increased EDV
28
What factors influence the increased a-vO2 difference post endurance training
Increased blood flow due to decreased SNS vasoconstriction via release of catecholamines (bc/ exercise is easier) and imrpoved ability of the muscle to extract O2 (bc/increased capillary density and mitochondrial number)
29
What respiratory adaptations are seen in response to endurance training
At rest: no effect During submaximal exercise: lower pulmonary ventilation At max exercise: pulmonary ventilation is substantially increased
30
When detraining, what is the initial (12 day) decrease in VO2 max due to
Decreased SV max while HR and a-vO2 difference remain about the same or increased
31
When detraining, what is the later (>12 day) decrease in VO2 max due to
Decreased a-vO2 max due to decreases in mitochondria (though no change in capillary density unless it's been a very long time or in astronauts)
32
How long does it take to regain mitochondrial adaptations after detraining
3-4 weeks (no substaintial improvement of the amount of time it takes to train initially vs. retrain)
33
What is the lack of transfer of a training effect
Cardiovascular, pulmonary, and SNS responses are specific to the training state of the muscles involved (untrained limbs will not show differences) for ENDURANCE training
34
What are the 2 kinds of strength training
High-resistance: 6-10 reps till fatigue to increase strength Low-resistance: 35-40 reps to fatigue to increase endurance
35
What is the transfer of a training effect with resistance/strength training
When one arm is trainied, a portion of that training is "transferred" to the other arm
36
What are early gains in strength due to resistance training the result of
Nueral adaptations (8-20 wks) *Longer for sedentary individuals
37
What are 6 examples of neural adaptations to strength/resistance training
1) Increased neural drive 2) Recruiting more motor units 3) Increased firing rate of motor units 4) Increased motor unit synchronization 5) Increased neural transmission (e.g. Acth) across the neuromuscular junction 6) Changing golgi tendon organ/muscle spindle activation to decrease antagonist activation to generate more force
38
What are resistance training-induced changes to skeletal muscle size do do
Hyperplasia* (increased number of muscle fibers) and hypertrophy (increased cross-sectional area of muscle fibers) *Unclear if it occurs in humans
39
What is the main factor in resistance training-induced increases to muscle mass
Hypertrophy/increased parallel muscle fiber cross-sectional area due to increased muscle proteins (actin and myosin) and myonuclei
40
What are resistance training-induced changes to muscle fiber type
Shift from fast (IIx) to slower (IIa) fibers because fibers need to be more resitant to fatigue as well as increasd strength and CSA of ALL fiber types
41
Why is it important to eat protein when engaging in either endurance or resistance training
Because it increases the rate of protein synthesis post-training
42
What percent of differences in muscle mass between individuals can be explained by genetics
~80% (High responders -> Low responders for hypertrophy)
43
How are protein synthesis and degradation influenced by activity
Active muscles heavily favor protein synthesis while inactive muscles favor degradation which can lead to atrophy
44
Is the rate of detraining higher for endurance or resistance training
Endurance training
45
How quickly can dynamic strength loss be recovered after retraining for resistance training
Within 6 wks bc/ the main changes initially are neural adaptations rather than muscle atrophy
46
How are strength gains impacted by combined resitance and endurance training
They are decreased but the magnitude of that decrease depends on training state, volume/frequency of training, and how methods are integrated
47
What are 3 mechanisms for the impairment of strength development due to concurrent endurance training
1) Impaired motor unit recruitmen (little evidence) 2) Overtraining (no direct evidence) 3) Depressed protein synthesis via inhibition of mTOR by activation of AMPK in response to endurance training
48
What impact does concurrent resistance and endurance training have on endurance
It has no significant impact
49
What are recommendations for athletes looking to increase strength who want to enroll in concurrent strength and endurance programs
Those looing to maximize strength shouldn't do concurrent training and others should perform strength and endurance on alternate das to optimize gains
50
What is the structure of the traditional periodized training program
Increase training load (intensity or duration) by less than or equal to 10% per week
51
What are the consequences of undertraining
Minor physiological adaptations and no change in performance
52
What are consequences of acute overload
Positive physiological adaptations and minor improvements in performance
53
What are the consequences of overreaching
Optimal physiological adaptations and performance
54
What are the consequences of overtraining
Physiological maladaptations, performance decrements, and overtraining syndrome
55
Whatare 6 symptoms of overtraining
1) Decrease in performance 2) Chronic fatigue 3) Psychological staleness 4) Loss of body weight 5) Increased number of infections 6) Elevated HR and blood lactate levels during exercise
56
How long can it take to recover from overtraining syndrome
Months to years
57
What is tapering
A short-term reduction in training load prior to competition
58
What is the purpose of tapering
To allow muscles to remake glycogen and heal from training-induced damage to improve performance in strenth and endurance events
59
How much can athletes reduce training load when tapering without a reduction in performance
60%
60
What is the difference between homeotherms and heterotherms
Homeoterms maintain a fairly stable core body temp despite environmental fluctuations (heat lost must match heat gain) Heterotherms have a body temp similar to their surroundings (lay in sun to warm up)
61
What is normal body temp for humans
37°C
62
What core body temp is classified as hyperthermia
Temps above 45°C (can damage proteins/enzymes and lead to death)
63
What core body temp is classified as hypothermia
Temps below 34°C (can result in decreased metabolism and cardiac arrhythmias)
64
What is the typical gradient between deep body core and skn surface
Usually ~4°C but can be about 20°C in extreme cold
65
How can core temp be measured
In the rectum, ear, or esophagus, or using an ingestible temperature sensor telemetry system
66
How can skin temp be measured
Using thermistors at various locatiosn and then averaged
67
What are 2 kinds of heat production
Voluntary (exercise) and involuntary (shivering and non-shivering thermeogenesis)
68
About what percent of energy expenditure is released as heat during exercise
70-80%
69
What contributes to non-shivering thermogenesis
Thyroxine (thyroid hormones) and catecholamines
70
How much can shivering increase heat production by
~5x
71
What are 4 primary mechanisms of heat loss
Evaporation, radiation, conduction, and convection
72
What 3 factors impact evaporation rate
1) Temp and relative humidity 2) Convective currents around the body 3) Amount of skin surface exopsed
73
Why does high relative humidity decrease the rate of evaporation
Becuase it decreases the vapor pressure gradient between the skin and the environment
74
What is the heat index
A measure of the body's perception of how hot it feels (feels hotter when relative humidity reduces evaporative heat loss)
75
What part of the body senses and responds to increases in core body temp
The preoptic anterior hypothalamus (POAH)
76
How does the preoptic anterior hypothalamus (POAH) respond to increased core temp
It stimulates sweat glands to aid in evaporative heat loss and also causes cutaneous vasodilation to aid in convective/radiative heat loss using sympathetic cholinergic innervation
77
How are eccrine sweat glands stimulated
Using activation by ACh released by the SNS* which minds muscarinic ACh receptors *Rare example of sympathetic cholinergic innervation
78
How does body temp change with exercise intensity
Core temp increases proportional to active muscle mass (linear w/exercise intensity)
79
Does environmental temp impact heat production during steady state exercise
No, only intensity does
80
What are the 3 stages of heat illness when exercising
Heat cramps, heat exhaustion, and heatstroke
81
What are 4 symptoms of heat cramps
Painful large muscle cramps, profuse sweating, excessive thirst, and fatigue
82
What are 3 symptoms of heat exhaustion
Nausea, chills/goose bumps, and headache
83
What are 4 symptoms of heatstroke
Cessation of sweating (bc/ have already lost so much water), blood clotting/viscous blood (due to water loss), confusion, and loss of consciousness
84
What are 3 cardiovascular responses to exercise in the heat
1) Upward drift in VO2 during prolonged exercise 2) HR creeping up to maintain Q while SV decreased due to sweat loss 3) Blood flow shunted away from working muscles/nonessential areas (gut, liver, and kidneys) to the skin
85
How does sweat rate change during exercise
It increases (can be ~4/5 L/hr) but varies widely between individuals (larger people have higher sweat rates because more skin = more sweat glands)
86
What are the endocrine responses to exercise in the heat
Increased release of vasopressin and aldosterone (doesn't really help during exercise but super important after)
87
What 3 factors contribute to impaired exercise performance in the heat
CNS dysfunction, cardiovascular dysfunction, and accelerated muscle fatigue
88
How does CNS dysfunction contribute to impared performance in the heat
Decreased motivation (e.g. depressed will to win) and reduced voluntary activation of motor units
89
How does cardiovascular dysfunction contribute to impared performance in the heat
Reduced SV, decreased Q (at high intensities), and decreased muscle blood flow *Contributes to accelerated muscle fatigue
90
How does accelerated muscle fatigue contribute to impared performance in the heat
Increased radical production, decreased muscle pH, and muscle glycogen depletion *Contributes to CNS dysfunction
91
What is acclimation
Rapid physiological adaptation w/in days to weeks or artificially induced in a climate chamber
92
What is acclimatization
Gradual, long-term adaptation w/in months to years of exposure to environmental stress (i.e. climate)
93
What environments stimulate acclimation/acclimatization
Hot environments that elevate core temps
94
What is the end result of heat acclimation
Reduced HR and core temp during submaximal exercise
95
What are 5 adaptations during heat acclimation
1) Increased plasma volume (10-12%) 2) Earlier onset of sweating and higher sweat rate 3) Reduced NaCl loss in sweat/increased aldosterone release 4) Reduced skin blood flow 5) Increased cellular heat shock proteins
96
Why does plasma volume increase due to heat acclimation
It helps to maintain blood volume, stroke volume, and sweating capacity
97
Why does sweating begin earlier and occur at a greater rate due to heat acclimation
To store less heat and maintain a lower body temp
98
Why does the concentration of cellular heat shock proteins increase due to heat acclimation
To reduce the risk of heat injury by protecting cells directly as well as stabilizing and refolding damaged proteins
99
How does aging cause differences in thermoregulation
It causes a reduced ability to lose heat during exercise as skin blood flow is reduced in people over 60
100
Are there sex differences in thermoregulation
When matched for body comp. and level of acclimation, not really (except accounting for menstrual phase)
101
How quickly are adaptations due to acclimation lost
Within a few days of inactivity/no heat exposure (significant decline in 7 days and complete loss in 28 days)
102
How does the body react to decreased core temp
The Preoptic anterior hypothalamus (POAH) causes shivering and decreased skin blood flow (via cutaneous vasoconstriction)
103
What is non-shivering thermeogenesis
The POAH releases NE and thyroxine which increase rate of cellular metabolism (non-shivering thermeogenesis)
104
What neurons are stimulated to cause involuntary shivering in response to decreased core body temp
Somatic motor neurons
105
Hw does the POAH cause cutaneous vasoconstriction in response to decreased core body temp
It stimulates the SNS to release NE onto alpha1-ADR which causes the vasoconstriction
106
What are consequences of exercising in a cold environment
Enhanced heat loss that may result in hypothermia (could cause loss of judgement that would risk further injury)
107
What are insulating factors in the human body
Mainly subcutaneous fat (especially effective in cold water) which is the primary fuel for shivering in well-fed individuals *Amount of insulation needed is reduced during exercise
108
How does water temperature impact thermoregulation
Water immersion results in a rate of heat loss 25x greater than air of the same temp *Much easier to die
109
What is the cardiovascular response to exercise in the cold
Blood flow is shunted away from the skin and towards the core via cutaneous vasoconstriction
110
How is muscle function impaired in the cold
Hands often become numb due to reduced blood flow and depressed rate in neural transmission which causes loss of dexterity
111
What is the endocrine response to exercising in the cold
Increased release of NE, E, and thyroxine for metabolic heat production (non-shivering thermeogenesis)
112
What are core body temps of 37-25°C associated with
Hypothermia related to life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias
113
What 2 health risks are posed by exercising in cold air
Exposed skin is at risk of frostbite when temps are below freezing and breathing cold air can trigger exercise-induced asthma in some people due to cooling and drying of airways
114
What are the 3 adaptations due to cold acclimation
1) Lower skin temp at which shivering begins (increased non-shivering thermeogenesis) 2) Maintain higher hand and foot temp (improved peripheral blood flow) 3) Improved ability to sleep (due to reduced shivering)
115
How does sex influence response to cold exposure
At rest, women show faster reduction in body temp then men due to body comp and anthropometry
116
How does age influence response to cold exposure
People over 60 yrs old are less tolerant to the cold while children experience a faster fall in body temp
117
What is Dalton's Law
The total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the pressure that each gas would exert independently
118
What is the fraction of O2 in the air
0.2093
119
What is the fraction of CO2 in the air
0.0003
120
What is the fraction of N2 in the air
0.7904
121
What is barometric pressure at sea level
760 mmHg
122

Exercise Physiology (12 decks)

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