Final Exam Flashcards
Module 1 - Studying Personality
Define personality?
Personality is a combination of genetic traits, experiences, and external influences that shape behavior, emotions, and perceptions.
How do theorists define personality?
Gordon Allport: Interaction between mind and body influences behavior and personality.
Henry Murray: Focuses on human lives and individual differences.
Carl Jung: innate idiosyncrasy of living being, Personality shaped by courage, risk-taking, and self-actualization later adopted by Maslow.
McAdams and Pals: Personality shaped by evolutionary factors, dispositional traits, and cultural influences.
What does “acting in character” mean?
It refers to shifting roles, influenced by external factors and culture, not just stable traits.
Does culture influence personality?
True. Cultures explore the enduring traits of individuals through literature and artifacts.
How is personality reflected in theater?
Ancient Greece created character sketches, and many cultures use masks to signify roles.
Philosophical and religious views on personality?
Western: Creation in God’s image, good vs. evil struggle.
Eastern: Focus on self-fulfillment and consciousness expansion.
Do psychologists agree on the definition of personality?
No, there are varying perceptions, though personality is relatively stable and may change over time.
What is the root word for personality?
Persona
Do differing views on humanity lead to different personality theories?
Yes
Do personality theories differ in assumptions about scientific methods?
Yes
What is the textbook definition of personality?
A pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that influence behavior.
What refers to a relatively permanent disposition inferred from behavior?
Trait
What are unique qualities like temperament and intelligence called?
Characteristics
What are characteristic adaptations?
Personality changes due to life context, such as social roles or age.
What’s the difference between traits, dispositions, and characteristics?
Trait: Stable behavior pattern (e.g., extraversion).
Disposition: Tendency to behave in a certain way.
Characteristic: Defining feature (e.g., kindness)
What are life stories in personality theory?
Life narratives are the personal stories individuals create to make meaning and build identity.
What defines a personality theory?
A set of related assumptions that generate hypotheses to explain personality and predict behavior.
What are the aspects of a theory?
Philosophy: Theories don’t deal with values.
Speculation: Theories are based on data, not just ideas.
Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction.
Taxonomy: Classification system that leads to hypotheses.
What is inductive reasoning in theory development?
Theorists refine or build new theories based on observations and data analysis.
Different perspectives on personality?
Psychodynamic: Focus on unconscious and early life.
Humanistic-Existential: Growth and psychological health.
Dispositional: Traits like the Big Five.
Biological-Evolutionary: Evolution’s role in shaping behavior.
Learning (Social-Cognitive): Behavior shaped by the environment.
What makes a theory useful?
A dynamic cycle of theory, hypotheses, research, and evidence reshapes theories and makes them coherent and testable
Key dimensions for comparing theories?
Determinism vs. Free Choice
Pessimism vs. Optimism
Causality vs. Teleology
Conscious vs. Unconscious
Biological vs. Social influences
Uniqueness vs. Similarities
What makes personality predictable according to Skinner and Freud?
Skinner: Predictable behavior through exposure.
Freud: Focus on symptoms to explain behavior.
Freud’s contribution?
He combined philosophical ideas and scientific methods to develop a theory explaining personality.
How is human personality variable?
Humans exhibit individual differences in introversion, social needs, emotional stability, etc.
Why do personality theorists differ?
Cultural, experiential, and training influences lead to diverse perspectives.
What’s important in personality research?
The theory-data link: theories generate research, and research refines theories. Personality inventories must be reliable and valid.
Module 2 - Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis
Freud’s Biography & Psychoanalysis
influential in literature, especially in understanding characters and conflicts.
Freud faced rejection and struggled to gain recognition, even after his work on cocaine and male hysteria.
Key Concepts of Freud’s Psychoanalysis
Unconscious Mind: Stores repressed thoughts, influencing behavior.
Personality Development: Shaped by psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital).
Defense Mechanisms: Protect against anxiety (e.g., repression).
Id, Ego, Superego: Internal conflict shaped by societal norms.
Biological & Deterministic: Personality shaped by biology and unconscious drives.
Early Life & Background
Freud was born in a Jewish family in Eastern Europe and received special treatment as the firstborn.
His relationship with his mother was close, and his father was distant.
Freud’s Work with Breuer & Hysteria
Freud and Breuer developed psychoanalysis to treat hysteria (e.g., paralysis, hallucinations) using hypnosis and cathartic methods.
Repressed memories uncovered in hypnosis could alleviate symptoms.
Psychoanalytic Techniques
Free Association: Speak without censorship to uncover patterns.
Dream Analysis: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.
Resistance & Transference: Avoided thoughts signal repressed material; emotional attachment to therapist aids healing.
Freud’s Personality Model
Id: Unconscious drives (pleasure-seeking).
Ego: Balances reality and Id desires.
Superego: Moral values, inhibits desires.
Rider-Horse Analogy: Ego tries to control the Id, while the Superego imposes moral judgment.
Freud on Anxiety & Defense Mechanisms
Anxiety: Conflict between Id and Ego (neurotic, moral, or realistic).
Defense Mechanisms: Repression, projection, sublimation (ways to protect the ego from anxiety).
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
Oral Stage (0-1): Comfort in sucking (fixation leads to habits like smoking).
Anal Stage (1-3): Potty training (fixation leads to obsession with neatness).
Phallic Stage (3-6): Oedipus complex, gender recognition, and conflict between sexual desires and societal rules.
Latency Stage: Focus on friendships, no conflict.
Genital Stage: Sexual maturity and healthy relationships.
Freud’s Views on Gender & Sexuality
Penis Envy: Women’s sexuality seen as incomplete.
Libido: Sexual drive exists from birth, evolves in stages.
Critics: Disproved Freud’s views on female sexuality.
Freud’s Legacy & Criticism
Freud’s theories were hard to test scientifically, but his ideas influenced psychology, literature, and modern neuroscience.
Grünbaum’s Critique: No evidence of universal repression or that removing symptoms proves repression causes neuroses.
Contemporary Relevance
Modern neuroscience and psychology recognize unconscious mental processes, aligning with Freud’s theories on unconscious motivation and repression.
Freud’s idea of defense mechanisms is still relevant in understanding psychological defense.
Module 31A - Psychodynamic Approaches - Alfred Adler
Freud vs. Adler
Freud’s Focus: Sex, aggression, repressed memories; deterministic.
Adler’s Focus: Free will, ego growth, social factors; individual agency.
Key Differences: Freud = past drives, unconscious. Adler = future goals, social interest, subjective perceptions.
Adler’s Background
Influenced by Freud but broke away.
Struggled with childhood health issues; developed Individual Psychology.
Emphasized social interest and goal-setting for personality.
Adler’s Theory - Individual Psychology
Striving for Superiority: Core motivation (social vs. personal gain).
Style of Life: Unique personality, formed by age 4-5, based on early experiences.
Creative Power: Individuals shape their destiny through goal-setting.
Adler vs. Freud
Freud: Motivated by unconscious forces, past experiences.
Adler: Motivated by future goals, social connection, subjective perceptions.
Adler’s Key Concepts
Inferiority Complex: Leads to overcompensation.
Social Interest: Key to psychological health.
Striving for Success: Healthy focus on social contributions.
Adler’s Striving for Superiority
Unhealthy: Focus on personal superiority.
Healthy: Striving for collective success and societal good.
Goal Development: Formed by age 4-5, influenced by early experiences.
Subjective Perceptions & Fictions
Fictions: Beliefs shaping present behavior (e.g., future goals).
Teleology: Behavior motivated by purpose, not just unconscious drives (contrasts with Freud’s causality).
Birth Order Impact
Firstborn: Independent, but seeks to regain status.
Secondborn: Competitive, may suffer from failure.
Lastborn: Pampered, ambitious but can be overly dependent.
Only Child: Self-confident, but less cooperative.
Therapeutic Technique
Early Memories: Reveals current style of life and unconscious goals.
Safeguarding Tendencies: Protect self-esteem, often leading to maladaptive behaviors.
Adler vs. Freud on Women
Freud: Saw women as inferior.
Adler: Believed men and women are equal.
Research on Adler’s Concepts
Birth Order: Minor impact on personality but influences IQ and social interest.
Rebelliousness: Laterborns are more likely to challenge authority.
Narcissism vs. Self-Esteem
Narcissism: Superiority, lacks social interest.
Self-Esteem: Healthy self-regard.
Critique of Adler’s Theory
Strengths: Encourages action and self-awareness.
Weaknesses: Hard to verify, concepts like “creative power” lack clear definition.
Module 31B - Psychodynamic Approaches - Carl Jung
Jung’s Background
Early Life: Swiss doctor, worked with schizophrenic patients.
Freud’s Influence: Initially friends, but broke due to disagreements (sexual motivation).
Key Position: President of International Psychoanalytic Association, 1910.
Jung’s View on Motivation and Personality
Libido: A creative force for personal growth.
Personality: Includes conscious ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious.
Collective Unconscious: Shared ancestral experiences shaping personality.
Archetypes
Definition: Inherited emotional responses, influencing behavior and dreams.
Examples:
Magician, Anima/Animus, Hero, Shadow, Persona, etc.
Archetypes symbolize universal themes (e.g., Mother, Hero, Wise Old Man).
Causality & Teleology
Causality: Past causes influence behavior.
Teleology: Behavior is motivated by future goals.
Progression & Regression: Adaptation to external (progression) vs. internal (regression) needs.
Dream Analysis
Purpose: Restore psychological balance and reveal unconscious aspects.
Symbols: Unique to individuals, require context for interpretation.
Archetypes: Dreams express these unconscious patterns.
Word Association Test
Purpose: Uncover complexes (emotionally charged thoughts).
Indicators: Delayed responses, body changes.
Individuation
Key Concept: Balancing all parts of the self, especially the unconscious and anima/animus, for personal growth.
Middle Age: Crucial for individuation and synthesizing conflicting forces.
Personality Types
Attitudes: Extraversion vs. Introversion.
Functions: Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, Intuition.
Maturity: Involves balancing both attitudes and functions.
MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)
Based on Jung’s personality types but adds Judging/Perceiving.
Critique: Personality is not fixed, lacks evolutionary basis.
Jung’s Stages of Life
Childhood: Chaotic, ego development.
Youth: Independence, reality facing.
Middle Life: Letting go of past ideals.
Old Age: Acceptance of death, spiritual peace.
Self-Realization
Goal: Integrate opposites (e.g., ego & unconscious).
Methods: Word association, dream analysis, active imagination
Active Imagination
Technique: Engage with unconscious through dreams, visions, and fantasies.
Goal: Reveal and integrate archetypes for self-realization.
Psychotherapy
Stages: Confession, interpretation, social education, transformation.
Goal: Achieve individuation and balance between conscious and unconscious.
Jung’s Concept of Humanity
Motivation: Combination of conscious, unconscious, and ancestral influences.
Opposites: Integration of opposing traits (e.g., introversion vs. extraversion).
Cultural Universality: Collective unconscious is universal across cultures.
Module 4 1A - Women’s Voices in Psychodynamic Theory: Melanie Kline and Object-Relations Theory
Critique of Freud & Maternal Influence
Klein criticized Freud’s patriarchal view and emphasized mother-child relationships in personality development.
Object Relations Theory
Focuses on relationships, especially mother-child bonding, over biological drives.
Klein vs. Freud
Klein: Early object internalization (good/bad), phases of paranoid-schizoid (split objects) and depressive (guilt/empathy) positions.
Early Experiences
Early relationships shape later trust and conflict resolution.
Klein’s Contributions
Developed Object Relations Theory, critiquing Freud’s gender biases.
Klein’s Early Life
Experienced emotional conflict and loss; trained under Ferenczi.
Focus on Relationships
Emphasized emotional connection over biological drives.
Internal Representations
Early relationships shape internal images (e.g., breast, father), leading to projection and splitting.
Infant Development
Early life forms the foundation of personality; phantasies (good/bad) influence later emotional development.
Paranoid-Schizoid & Depressive Positions
Split objects (good/bad) lead to ambivalence; recognizing both good and bad builds empathy.
Defense Mechanisms
Projection and splitting help manage anxiety.
Ego & Superego
Ego develops through early object relations; superego emerges harshly, softening over time.
Mahler’s Stages
Stages of development: Normal autism, symbiosis, separation-individuation.
Bowlby & Attachment Theory
Attachment stages (protest, despair, detachment) influence future relationships.
Attachment Styles
Secure attachment leads to better emotional experiences; insecure leads to challenges.
Critique of Object Relations
Lacks testability and broad applicability; attachment theory has more empirical support.
Module 4 1B - Women’s Voices in Psychodynamic Theory: Karen Horney
Karen Horney Overview
Critique of Freud: Challenged Freud’s views on women, sexuality, and patriarchy.
Focus: Emphasized social influences and maternal care over biological instincts.
Theory: Optimistic view on personality shaped by culture, not biology.
Feminine Psychology
Gender Differences: Cultural, not anatomical.
Oedipus/Penis Envy: Rejected, argued men have “womb envy.”
Masculine Protest: Women desire masculine traits, not anatomy.
Early Life & Education
Born: 1885, Hamburg, Germany.
Education: Studied medicine despite father’s objections, trained in psychoanalysis.
Conflict: Personal struggles with family, divorce, and professional growth.
Childhood & Personality Formation
Healthy Development: Requires warmth and balance.
Basic Anxiety & Hostility: Caused by unmet childhood needs.
Defense Mechanisms: Includes submission, withdrawal, and compulsion.
Cultural Impact on Personality
Culture over Genetics: Social influences shape personality more than biology.
Society’s Contradictions: Values kinship but rewards aggression; competition breeds anxiety.
Neurotic Needs & Personality
Neurotic Needs: Arise from lack of affection; include needs like approval, power, and admiration.
Rigid Patterns: Childhood experiences shape defense mechanisms and personality traits.
Therapy Approach
Goal: Help patients move toward self-realization.
Focus: Address the gap between idealized self and real self.
Techniques: Dream analysis, free association.
Critique of Horney’s Theory
Limited Focus: Overemphasis on neuroticism, lacking healthy personality models.
Consistency Issues: Inconsistent use of terms across her work.
Module 5 1A - Humanistic and Existential Approaches: Abraham Maslow
Viktor Frankl Quote
Key Idea: The last freedom is the ability to choose one’s attitude in any situation. (Frankl, 1946)
Existential & Humanistic Themes
Core Ideas: Free will, responsibility, relationships, and the search for meaning are essential for growth and self-actualization.
Camus: Sisyphus
Key Idea: Sisyphus represents freedom in choosing how to interpret suffering.
Humanism
Core Idea: Human-centered philosophy valuing human worth and potential.
Humanistic Psychology
“Third Force”: Humanistic psychology focuses on growth, creativity, and self-actualization.
Humanism in Therapy
Core Themes: Overcoming challenges, finding meaning, and realizing potential through introspection and relationships.
Maslow’s Background
Life: Born 1908, NYC, with a difficult childhood and early academic influences.
Approach: Holistic and humanistic, rejecting reductionist psychology.
Maslow’s View on Motivation
Holistic & Complex: Motivation involves all aspects of the person, with needs arranged in a hierarchy.
Universal: All people have the same basic needs.
Flow (Csikszentmihalyi)
Components: Intense concentration, merging of action and awareness, loss of self-consciousness, sense of agency, time distortion, intrinsic rewards.
Peak Experience (Maslow)
Key Idea: Moments of extreme joy, accomplishment, and transcendence.
Importance of Peak Experiences
Self-Actualization: Peak experiences are essential for personality growth and life goals.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
D-needs: Physiological, safety, belongingness, and esteem needs.
B-needs: Growth needs, such as self-actualization.
B-needs (Growth/Being Needs)
Key Idea: Self-actualization and transcendence foster personal growth beyond survival needs.
Personality Shaped by Growth
Key Insight: Personality is shaped by both biological needs and the pursuit of self-fulfillment.
Maslow on Self-Actualization
Self-Actualizers: Creative, fulfilled individuals, striving for growth.
Examples: Artists, innovators.
Criteria for Self-Actualization
Core Qualities: Free from pathology, embrace B-values (truth, beauty, aliveness), and fully use their potential.
Maslow’s 15 Qualities of Self-Actualizing People
Key Traits: Spontaneity, creativity, problem-centering, peak experiences, and profound relationships.
Maslow’s View of Therapy
Goal: Promote self-actualization by fostering a warm, accepting therapeutic environment.
Research on Maslow’s Theory
Reiss & Havercamp (2005): Lower motives stronger in younger people, higher motives in older people.
Taormina & Gao (2013):
Key Finding: Mixed support for the strict hierarchy of needs; adjacent needs often correlate.
Positive Psychology
Burton & King (2004): Writing about positive experiences for 20 minutes daily improved physical health.
Module 5 1B - Humanistic and Existential Approaches - Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers - Key Points
- background
Born: 1902, Oak Park, Illinois.
Career: Developed client-centered therapy after Ph.D. in psychology.
Rogers’ Key Beliefs
Core Ideas: Growth is innate; therapy should help explore experiences, fostering self-control and a broad self-concept.
Rogers’ Basic Assumptions
Formative Tendency: Matter evolves from simple to complex.
Actualizing Tendency: People strive to fulfill their potential.
Organismic Nature: Involves the whole person.
Maintenance vs. Enhancement Needs: Stability vs. growth.
Module 5 1C - Humanistic and Existential Approaches - Rollo May
What are the key ideas of Existentialism?
Focus on human existence, personal choice, and rejecting determinism. Key ideas: Being-in-the-world, Active interpretation, Rejects positivism.
Who is Rollo May?
Existential psychologist, focused on authentic living. “To understand existence, recognize the possibility of death.”
What are May’s principles of healthy living?
Growth, challenge destiny, embrace freedom, live authentically, accept death.
What is existential alienation?
An “illness of our time,” linked to psychological symptoms.
What are the types of alienation?
Alienation from nature, others, and self (Umwelt, Mitwelt, Eigenwelt). Healthy people balance all three.
Why are myths important?
Myths provide meaning, cultural identity, and aid psychological growth. Lack of them leads to alienation.
How does anxiety relate to growth?
Growth involves anxiety-driven surrender of past values. Anxiety can energize or paralyze.
What are the types of anxiety?
Neurotic (disproportionate) vs. Normal (constructive for growth).
What are the four types of love?
Sex, Eros (enduring love), Philia (nonsexual friendship), Agape (altruistic care for others). Healthy relationships blend all four.
How are freedom and destiny balanced in healthy individuals?
Healthy people balance freedom with destiny (e.g., death’s uncertainty).
What is May’s approach to therapy?
Guide clients to live authentically, focusing on relationships, not just symptoms.
What’s the issue with May’s theories?
Limited empirical research, but positive psychology explores similar themes.
Module 6 1A - Personality, Culture and Society: Indigenous Voices
How do relationships shape your personality?
Reflect on relationships with people, animals, places, and things, considering gratitude’s impact.
What does Leroy Little Bear say about colonialism?
Colonialism erases diverse worldviews, pushing a singular order.
What is Aboriginal philosophy?
Energy in motion; cyclical view; languages reflect interrelationships.
Key Aboriginal values?
Wholeness, community, responsibility, respect, sharing.
How are Western values different?
Linear, static, objective, and materialistic.
Ideal personality according to Little Bear?
Strong, generous, adaptable, group-oriented, spiritually wise.
What’s Joseph Gone’s focus?
Integrating Indigenous psychologies into clinical practice.
Why is respecting Indigenous thought important?
It offers a different understanding of the mind.
What’s the issue in Gone’s research?
Mismatch of AI distress with non-AI mental health services.
What do the excerpts from Traveling Thunder show?
Differences in Western vs. Indigenous healing, importance of ceremony.
What’s the Aaniiih view on thought?
Thought shapes reality; collective thought is powerful.
What is thought-wish healing in Aaniiih culture?
Thought-wish heals or harms; ceremony restores the mind.
Module 6 1B - Personality, Culture and Society: Research with non-Western Communities
What’s the difference?
Individualism values personal achievement, while collectivism values group success.
What is WEIRD psychology?
Refers to Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic cultures.
Why are they important?
Test personality theories’ universality across cultures.
What does it study?
Universal, evolved human traits.
What broad motives are there?
Socialization, relationships, autonomy, competence.
What are key mechanisms in evolutionary psychology?
Mate selection, cheating detection, status negotiation.
How do culture and evolution interact?
Evolved mechanisms respond to cultural environments.
What is Strategic Pluralism?
Mating strategies depend on the environment.
Fluctuating selection:
Trait levels vary by environment.
Cross-cultural perspectives. What do they comapre?
Universals vs. differences in cultures.
Personality measurement, What’s key?
Big Five traits are biologically-based and 40%-60% heritable.
Does the Big Five replicate globally?
Yes, across cultures
How does culture shape personality?
Personality is shaped by culture; independent vs. interdependent motivations.
What are the challenges? in BIG FiVE
Biases in Western inventories and adding new traits.
Indigenous Psychologies. What do they focus on?
Culture-specific traits, e.g., Amae, Simpatia.
What’s Keller’s critique?
Attachment theory is WEIRD-based and culturally biased.
Attachment theory basics:
Emotional bonds with caregivers that shape development.
What does Keller argue?
Universal attachment claims conflict with global parenting differences.
Module 7 1A - Studying Individuals, traits, and dispositions: Gordon Allport
What is Allport’s view on personality?
Personality shaped by conscious choices, with limited freedom. Growth is possible at any age.
Give examples of cardinal characteristics.
Obama (charismatic), Beyoncé (empowering), Taylor Swift (authentic).
Brief biography of Gordon Allport.
Born 1897, Harvard grad, APA president (1939), major contributor to psychology.
What was Allport’s approach to personality?
Focused on individual traits and case studies, opposed general trait theories.
How did Allport define personality?
Dynamic psychophysical systems shaping behavior and thought.
What did Allport emphasize about motivation?
Focused on conscious motivation, rejecting Freud’s emphasis on unconscious forces.
Characteristics of a healthy person in Allport’s view?
Proactive, autonomous, flexible, and not controlled by unconscious motives.
Key traits of a healthy person’s self-extension?
Compassion, emotional security, realistic perception, humor, and clear life purpose.
What is Identity Fusion?
Greater fusion with others leads to better conflict coping
What’s the difference between common traits and personal dispositions?
Common traits are shared, personal dispositions are unique to each individual.
What are the types of traits in Allport’s theory?
Cardinal (dominant), central (key traits), secondary (less important).
What drives motivational dispositions?
Basic needs like hunger and survival.
What’s the role of motivation in personality?
Motivation evolves; it’s present-driven and future-oriented.
What is functional autonomy?
Motives become independent of original causes, driven by present interests.
What methods did Allport use in studying personality?
Interviews, self-reports, diaries, art, etc. (nomothetic and idiographic).
What does Allport’s Contact Hypothesis suggest?
Intergroup contact reduces prejudice if there’s equal status, common goals, and cooperation.
How can schools reduce prejudice?
By fostering equal status, common goals, and cooperation, as per Allport’s theory.
What is the focus of McAdams’ life story approach?
Examines life patterns, motivations, and turning points through mixed methods.
What is the focus of narrative research in identity?
Focuses on emotional tone and personal growth from hardship.
What defines a redemptive self story?
Overcoming hardship, finding meaning, often shared by generative adults in midlife.
Module 7 2A - Studying individuals, traits, and dispositions: McCrae & Costa
What are key themes of the Trait Approach?
Stability, biological evidence, inductive approach, research-oriented, parsimony, advanced stats, objective data.
What’s the difference between inductive and deductive approaches?
Inductive is based on observations, deductive tests pre-existing hypotheses.
How is personality expressed in cartoons?
Through consistent behaviors and emotions. E.g., Mickey = optimistic, Goofy = clumsy.
What are early trait approaches in history?
Ancient Greece (Hippocrates, Theophrastus), Darwin (traits evolve), Galton (measured inherited abilities).
What are the four classic trait types?
Sanguine (cheerful), Choleric (goal-oriented), Phlegmatic (relaxed), Melancholic (perfectionist).
What is the Lexical Hypothesis?
Important traits become part of language, helping predict behavior.
How did Cattell use factor analysis?
To identify core traits by analyzing correlations, using L-Data, Q-Data, and T-Data.
Name a few of Cattell’s 16 personality factors.
Outgoing vs Reserved, Suspicious vs Trusting, Imaginative vs Practical.
What is factor analysis used for?
o determine relationships between variables and identify clusters of traits.
What’s the difference between orthogonal and oblique rotation?
Orthogonal: independent factors (e.g., Five-Factor Model). Oblique: correlated factors (e.g., Cattell).
What was McCrae & Costa’s contribution to personality theory?
Developed the Five-Factor Model and NEO-PI, focusing on traits like extraversion and neuroticism.
What are the Big Five personality traits?
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
What are personality differences across US regions?
North Dakotans: sociable, friendly; New Yorkers: creative, neurotic; Openness higher in Northeast/West Coast.
What supports the success of the Big Five model?
Found across cultures, stable with age, compared well with other inventories.
What are the core components of the Five-Factor Theory?
Basic Tendencies (Big Five), Characteristic Adaptations (learned behaviors), Peripheral Components (biological, external influences).
What is the Big Five linked to?
Health, academic success, mood, career, divorce, and mortality.
What are controversies regarding the Big Five?
No clear biological basis, cultural differences, may not emerge universally, bias towards viewing others in five dimensions.
Module 8 1A - Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives: Hans Eyesenck
What are the key themes in biological approaches to personality?
Genetics, evolution, gene-environment interactions, stability of traits, debates on genetic determinism.
What does biology say about traits and temperament?
Stable emotional reactivity, persists over time, develops into distinct traits.
What traits are linked to brain function in Eysenck’s theory?
Extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism.
What biological evidence supports Eysenck’s theory?
Heritability of disorders, future research on neurotransmitters.
What does heritability mean in personality?
Genetic contribution to personality differences
How do twin studies show genetic influence?
Monozygotic twins show more similarities than dizygotic twins.
What did the Jim and Jim study reveal?
Identical twins separated at birth showed similar behaviors.
What are the levels in Eysenck’s hierarchy?
Specific acts, habitual acts, traits, super-factors.
How do personality traits relate to disease?
Type I (hopeless) linked to cancer, Type II (angry) linked to heart disease.
What are critiques of Eysenck’s work?
Issues with IQ, personality-disease links, and ethical concerns.
Module 8 1B - Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives: David Buss
What drives trait evolution?
Natural & sexual selection, artificial selection
How do nature and nurture influence personality?
Both contribute; cognitive biases affect interpretation.
What are adaptations, by-products, and noise?
Adaptations solve survival issues, by-products are side effects, noise is random.
What does evolutionary psychology study?
Human thought/behavior through adaptations.
What are the main questions in evolutionary psychology?
Mind’s evolution, structure, function, and the role of evolution/environment.
What does Buss’ theory suggest about personality?
Personality traits evolved to solve survival/reproduction problems.
How do psychological mechanisms shape personality?
Mechanisms help survival/reproduction (physical vs. psychological).
Name some psychological mechanisms for survival/reproduction.
Trust (conscientiousness), mate attraction (dominance, creativity).
How are psychological mechanisms linked to personality?
Mechanisms influence goals, emotions, and traits.
What does Buss say about mating strategies in the EEA?
Men mate widely, women mate wisely.
Why were EEA strategies adaptive, and do they still apply today?
EEA strategies were survival-focused but might be less relevant now.
How does Buss’ Big Five differ from McCrae & Costa’s?
Buss emphasizes adaptive functions of traits.
What shapes individual differences in personality?
Environmental, genetic, early experiences.
What are the benefits and costs of each Big Five trait?
Extraversion (benefit: mating success; cost: instability), etc.
What are common misunderstandings about evolution?
Genetic determinism, unconscious adaptations, imperfect designs.
Evolutionary Theory
What is natural and sexual selection?
Natural & Sexual Selection: Traits helping survival or attractiveness spread over time.
What is artificial selection?
Artificial Selection: Humans breed desirable traits.
Outcomes of Evolution
What are adaptations?
Adaptations: Traits solving survival/reproduction problems (e.g., sweat glands).
What are by-products in evolutionary psychology?
By-products: Side effects of adaptations (e.g., driving skills).
What is noise in evolutionary psychology?
Noise: Random changes with no function (e.g., belly button type).
Principles of Evolutionary Psychology
What was Charles Darwin’s contribution to evolutionary psychology?
Charles Darwin (1859): Psychology builds on Herbert Spencer’s idea of mental powers evolving gradually.
What is evolutionary psychology?
Evolutionary Psychology: Studies human thought and behavior through adaptations and mechanisms.
The Four Big Questions
What are the four big questions in evolutionary psychology?
Why is the human mind the way it is, and how did it evolve?
What is the structure of the human mind?
What function do mind parts serve?
How do evolution and environment shape behavior?
Buss’ Evolutionary Theory of Personality
What is the basis of Buss’s evolutionary theory of personality?
Personality traits evolved to solve survival and reproduction problems.
How do personality differences offer reproductive advantages?
Recognizing personality differences helps others evaluate our adaptive skills.
How do Big Five traits signal our problem-solving abilities in Buss’s theory?
The Big Five traits signal our ability to address survival and reproduction challenges.
Nature vs. Nurture in Buss’s Theory
How do nature and nurture influence behavior in Buss’s theory?
Both nature and nurture shape behavior.
What are cognitive biases in Buss’s theory?
Situation error: Overemphasizing the environment.
Attribution error: Focusing on internal traits over situational factors.
What is the concept of EEA in Buss’s theory?
EEA: Traits that aided survival in a specific environment were passed on.
Psychological Mechanisms
How is personality shaped according to Buss’s evolutionary theory?
Personality is shaped by evolved mechanisms for survival and reproduction.
What are the two types of psychological mechanisms?
Physical: Physiological systems for survival.
Psychological: Cognitive and motivational systems specific to survival and reproduction, often species-specific.
Examples of Mechanisms
What are some psychological mechanisms related to survival and reproduction?
Trust (survival/reproduction): Conscientiousness, agreeableness.
Mate attraction (reproduction): Dominance, creativity.
Intersex competition (reproduction): Aggression, drive, beauty.
What are some biological mechanisms that aid survival?
Information intake (survival): Eyes, ears, skin.
Temperature regulation (survival): Sweat glands.
Disease (survival): Immune system.
Injury (survival): Blood clotting.
Psychological Mechanisms and Personality
How do psychological mechanisms link to personality traits?
sychological mechanisms are linked to drives/emotions (e.g., dominance from a drive to win).
What are the key drives in personality formation?
Power: Aggression, dominance, achievement.
Intimacy: Love, attachment, alliances.
Personality and Mating Strategies in the EEA
How do personality traits relate to mating strategies in the EEA?
Buss suggests many personality traits, including mating strategies, evolved in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness (EEA).
Example: Men mate widely, women mate wisely.
Evolutionary Mating Strategies
What questions might be asked about evolutionary mating strategies?
How might this have been adaptive in the EEA?
Are these strategies still adaptive today?
Does linking modern mating strategies to evolutionary heritage make sense?
How convincing is this argument?
The Big Five According to Buss
How does Buss’s Big Five model differ from McCrae and Costa’s?
Buss’ model emphasizes the adaptive significance of traits.
What are the Big Five traits according to Buss?
Surgency/extraversion: Sociable, confident. Function: High status, attractive mates.
Agreeableness/hostility: Cooperative or aggressive. Function: Promotes group survival.
Conscientiousness: Reliable, task-focused. Function: Signals trustworthiness.
Emotional Stability/neuroticism: Stress response. Function: Anxiety aids survival.
Openness/intellect: Innovation, problem-solving. Function: Exploration for resources.
Origins of Individual Differences
What are the origins of individual differences according to Buss & Greiling?
Environmental: Shaped by the environment.
Early calibration: Childhood experiences influence behavior.
Niche specialization: Differentiating traits to gain attention.
Heritable/genetic: Traits influenced by genetics.
Non-adaptive: Traits with no survival/reproduction benefit.
Maladaptive: Traits that harm survival or attractiveness.
Evolutionary psychology favors universal behaviors over individual differences.
Benefits and Costs of the Big Five
What are the benefits and costs of Extraversion?
Benefit: Mating success, social alliances, exploration.
Cost: Physical risks, family instability.
What are the benefits and costs of Neuroticism?
Benefit: Vigilance, competitiveness.
Cost: Stress, depression, health issues.
What are the benefits and costs of Openness?
Benefit: Creativity, attractiveness.
Cost: Unusual beliefs, psychosis.
What are the benefits and costs of Conscientiousness?
Benefit: Long-term focus, life expectancy, social desirability.
Cost: Missed immediate gains, rigidity.
What are the benefits and costs of Agreeableness?
Benefit: Harmony, coalition building.
Cost: Social cheating, failure to maximize advantage.
Common Misunderstandings About Evolution
What are common misunderstandings about evolution according to Buss?
Genetic determinism: Behavior is influenced by both genes and environment (e.g., epigenetics).
Conscious adaptations: Evolutionary strategies are often unconscious.
Optimal design: Adaptations are not always perfect (e.g., preference for fatty foods).
Module 9 1A - Learning and Cognitive Approaches: Skinner
What is the main argument presented by Skinner in his quote from Walden Two?
In simple terms, Skinner is saying that if humans have true freedom (the ability to make completely independent choices), then it would be impossible to study or control their behavior, because behavior would be unpredictable.
However, Skinner argues that he doesn’t believe humans are truly free. He suggests that freedom is an assumption we make, but we can’t prove it for sure. Because of this, Skinner believes that it is plausible (likely) that humans are not entirely free, and that we can predict and influence behavior through science, which is what he focuses on.
So, Skinner is rejecting the idea of free will in order to make his behavioral science possible. If humans were totally free, then behavior would be too random and uncontrollable to study scientifically.
What are the core themes of a behaviorist (learning) approach?
- Behavior is a learned response to the environment.
- There are similarities between human learning and animal learning.
- Behavior is fully determined and predictable by environmental factors.
- Internal mental processes are not needed to explain behavior.
- Behavioral principles can be applied to improve individual and societal well-being.
How does Skinner’s view on freedom conflict with his behaviorism?
Skinner denies free will; behavior is shaped by environmental reinforcements.
Free choice is an illusion in his framework.
Why is Skinner’s view on behavior control controversial?
It reduces humans to controlled subjects, like animals.
Critics worry about who controls the reinforcement and behavior.
What does Skinner’s argument say about reinforcement in behavior?
Reinforcement shapes behavior.
Behavior is learned through rewards and punishments.
Society can be improved by controlling behavior with reinforcement.
How are Skinner’s ideas relevant to personality?
Personality is shaped by learned behavior, not internal traits or free will.
Reinforced behaviors form personality traits.
What is Locke’s main argument in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding?
The mind starts as a “blank slate” (tabula rasa) without any ideas.
Knowledge comes from experience.
All human knowledge is built from experiences in the world.
How does Locke’s empiricist doctrine contrast with rationalism?
Empiricism: Knowledge is derived from experience.
Rationalism: Knowledge comes from innate ideas, independent of experience.
How did Locke’s ideas influence behaviorism and personality psychology?
Behaviorists focus on observable, learned behaviors as the basis of personality.
Personality is shaped by responses to a changing environment, not innate traits.
Who is Ivan Pavlov?
- Russian physiologist who won the Nobel Prize in 1904 for work on digestion.
- Known for developing precise surgical techniques to collect digestive fluids.
- Did not consider himself a psychologist and disliked the field.
Why is Pavlov important to the study of personality?
- His work on dog conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism.
- His research on reflexes and conditioning influenced later behaviorist psychologists.
What is Pavlov’s famous experiment?
The experiment with dogs salivating at the sound of a bell (conditioned response).
What was Pavlov’s view on introspection?
He believed his objective approach to studying reflexes could liberate psychology from the “evil influences” of introspection.
What is classical conditioning?
Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to produce a conditioned response (CR).
Example: Bell (neutral stimulus) + food (UCS) = salivation (CR).
Key Terms in Classical Conditioning:
Unconditioned Reflex (UCR): An automatic, existing reflex (e.g., salivation when food is in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The stimulus that naturally produces a response (e.g., food).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the UCS, triggers the same response (e.g., bell).
Conditioned Reflex (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation at the sound of the bell).
Pavlov’s Focus on Reflexes:
Pavlov focused on the secretory reflex (e.g., salivation) rather than motor reflexes (e.g., head movement).
He wanted precise measurements and avoided speculative interpretations about the animal’s behavior.
What is Extinction in Classical Conditioning?
Extinction occurs when a conditioned response (CR) weakens after the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
Pavlov’s definition: “Weakening of the reflex to a conditional stimulus repeated without reinforcement.”
What is Generalization?
Generalization is when a response conditioned to one stimulus (e.g., a bell) also occurs to similar stimuli.
Example: The dog salivates not just at the sound of the bell but at other similar sounds.
What is Discrimination?
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond differently.
Example: If food follows a bell with one tone but not another, the dog will salivate to one tone and not the other.
Pavlov’s Experiment on Extinction:
Pavlov demonstrated that a CR (salivation) could be extinguished by presenting the CS (bell) without the UCS (food).
He recorded salivation and the “latent period” (time between the start of the metronome and salivation).
Findings on Extinction:
With successive extinction sessions, it took longer for the dog to begin salivating (greater latency).
The amount of salivation gradually declined over time.
Watson’s Contribution to Behaviorism:
Watson’s 1913 paper, Psychology as the Behaviorist Sees It, established behaviorism as a school of psychology.
Challenged introspective approaches and promoted psychology as a natural science focused on observable behavior.
Watson’s Four Proclamations for Psychology:
Psychology should be a natural science.
The goal of psychology should be to predict and control behavior.
Introspective methods should be discarded.
Psychology should adopt an evolutionary model for explaining both human and animal behavior.
Purpose of the “Little Albert” Experiment:
Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) aimed to study if fear could be conditioned in children.
The experiment tested whether emotional reactions, like fear, could be learned through classical conditioning.
The study sought to provide evidence that human emotional reactions are learned.
About Little Albert:
Albert (a pseudonym) was an 11-month-old infant who was initially “stolid and unemotional.”
He showed no fear of animals or objects but did fear a loud noise.
The goal was to condition him to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.
How the Conditioning Worked:
Albert was exposed to the white rat and a loud noise several times.
After several pairings, Albert began to show fear at the sight of the rat alone.
The infant’s fear response included crying, turning away, and attempting to crawl away.
Generalization of Fear:
Albert’s fear response generalized to other stimuli, such as a rabbit, a dog, and even a sealskin coat.
Some also believe Albert may have shown fear toward Watson himself.
Watson’s Conclusion:
Watson believed only a few stimuli (like loud noises) naturally trigger emotions.
He concluded that other fear reactions in children are conditioned, as demonstrated in the Little Albert study.
Who is Edward Thorndike?
Early learning theorist known for experiments with cats in puzzle boxes.
Demonstrated that learning occurs through trial and error.
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Experiments:
Cats were placed in puzzle boxes and learned to escape by trial and error.
The frequency of behaviors was influenced by their consequences.
The Law of Effect:
Definition: The probability of an action being repeated is strengthened when followed by a satisfying consequence (satisfier).
Satisfiers: Actions followed by positive outcomes are “stamped in.”
Annoyers: Actions followed by negative outcomes are “stamped out” (though later revisions downplay annoyers).
Trial and Error Learning:
Cats initially showed random behavior, but with repeated trials, ineffective behaviors dropped out, and successful behaviors occurred more quickly.
Thorndike believed the cat learned to associate the environment (stimuli) with successful responses (escape actions).
Transfer of Learning:
Transfer occurs when a new situation shares elements with an old one.
The cats did not exhibit complex reasoning or observational learning from other cats.
Thorndike’s Influence on Skinner:
Thorndike’s Law of Effect resembles Skinner’s operant conditioning.
Skinner acknowledged Thorndike’s influence, especially in understanding the role of rewards and punishments in learning.
Thorndike’s Laws for Humans:
Law of Effect: Rewards are more effective than punishments in promoting learning.
Law of Exercise: Repetition is needed for certain types of learning, like motor skills, but not for higher forms of learning (e.g., comprehension).
What is Operant Conditioning?
- A learning process where voluntary behaviors are controlled by their consequences.
- Behaviors become associated with specific consequences, which influence their future frequency.
Key Elements in Operant Conditioning:
Reinforcement: Strengthens a response, making it more likely to occur again (can be positive or negative).
Punishment: Weakens a response, making it less likely to occur again (can be positive or negative).
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behavior being repeated, but does not cause the behavior itself.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., giving a reward for good behavior).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping an annoying sound when a task is completed).
Punishment:
Skinner believed punishment is less effective than reinforcement in controlling behavior.
Punishment suppresses undesirable behavior but does not teach what the individual should do instead.
It can lead to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety, guilt) and maladaptive behaviors (e.g., avoiding those associated with punishment).
Skinner’s View on Behavior Control:
Skinner argued that positive and negative reinforcement are more effective for shaping and predicting behavior than punishment.
Strict control of reinforcement contingencies allows for precise shaping of behavior.
Problems with Punishment:
Punishment does not provide clear guidance on what behaviors should be done, just suppresses the undesired ones.
It may lead to fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations, causing maladaptive behavior in the long run.
Operant Conditioning:
What is the focus of operant conditioning?
The focus of operant conditioning is on the consequences of behavior.
How is the behavior in operant conditioning initiated?
The behavior is active and voluntary, as the organism operates on the environment.
What is an example of behavior influenced by reinforcement in operant conditioning?
An example is a rat pressing a lever to receive food.
What are the two main types of consequences in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement (which increases behavior) and Punishment (which decreases behavior).
What is the focus of classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning focuses on associating a neutral stimulus with a significant stimulus to produce a response.
What role do consequences play in operant conditioning?
Consequences shape and control behavior by making it more or less likely to occur in the future.
How is behavior in classical conditioning elicited?
Behavior is passive and involuntary, as it is elicited by a stimulus.
What is an example of classical conditioning?
An example is Pavlov’s dog salivating at the sound of a bell after it was repeatedly paired with food.
In classical conditioning, does the organism’s behavior result from consequences?
No, in classical conditioning, consequences are irrelevant; behavior is elicited by stimuli.
How does classical conditioning explain emotional responses?
Emotional responses, like fear, can become associated with a previously neutral stimulus, causing an automatic reaction to that stimulus.
Operant Learning Processes:
How does extinction occur in operant conditioning?
Extinction occurs when reinforcement is withheld, and the behavior gradually decreases.
What is generalization in operant conditioning?
Generalization occurs when operant behaviors are performed in environments similar to the learning environment.
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
Discrimination involves organisms learning to distinguish between different reinforcers, leading to different behavioral responses.
What is shaping in operant conditioning?
Shaping involves conditioning a response by first rewarding gross approximations of the behavior, then progressively rewarding closer and closer approximations until the desired behavior is achieved.
What is stimulus control in operant conditioning?
Stimulus control is when the environment in which behavior is reinforced exerts control over the behavior. It can be controlled by society, an individual, or oneself.
Schedules of Reinforcement:
What is a reinforcement schedule?
A reinforcement schedule defines the relationship between the number or pattern of responses and the delivery of reinforcements.
What are the two types of ratio schedules in reinforcement?
The two types are fixed ratio (FR) and variable ratio (VR).
What are the two types of interval schedules in reinforcement?
The two types are fixed interval (FI) and variable interval (VI).
How did Skinner demonstrate extinction with a rat?
Skinner demonstrated extinction by withholding food after the rat pressed the bar. The rate of bar pressing gradually decreased until the rat stopped responding.
How does generalization manifest in operant conditioning?
In generalization, a behavior conditioned in one environment (e.g., a bar press with a light on) can transfer to similar environments (e.g., the light being dimmed), where the behavior is still observed but at a slower rate.
How did Skinner demonstrate discrimination in operant conditioning?
Skinner demonstrated discrimination by reinforcing bar presses only when the light was on, which led the rat to bar press only when the light was on.
Skinner on the Human Organism:
What are the three forces that shape human behavior, according to Skinner?
Natural selection
Cultural practices
Individual history of reinforcement
How does natural selection affect human behavior?
It shapes survival-related behaviors, but it only influences a small number of actions in humans.
How do cultural practices evolve?
Cultural practices start as reinforced individual behaviors (e.g., tool-making) and become reinforced for social groups.
How does Skinner view the relevance of cultural practices today?
Cultural practices, like division of labor, may have been adaptive in the past but are no longer reinforcing in modern life.
How do individual histories of reinforcement shape behavior?
Most complex behaviors come from individual reinforcement histories, and inner states are simply observations of behavior and its consequences.
How does Skinner explain self-awareness?
Self-awareness is the observation of likelihood to behave in certain ways (e.g., noticing frustration increasing the likelihood of quitting a job).
How would Skinner describe “wanting to quit a job”?
It’s seen as observing increased frustration which makes quitting more likely, not as a mental desire to quit.
What does Skinner think of drives?
Drives are explanatory fictions and are simply the result of deprivation or satiation increasing behavior likelihood.
What is Skinner’s view on emotions?
Emotions don’t cause behavior; they are a result of reinforced behaviors and contingencies of survival.
What is Skinner’s take on purpose and intention?
They exist subjectively, but they are reinforcing stimuli and do not cause behavior.
How does Skinner explain creativity?
Creativity arises from changing the environment to increase the likelihood of producing new responses that are reinforced
What is Skinner’s view on free will?
Skinner believed that human behavior is fully determined by environmental contingencies, and therefore, we do not have free will.
What are explanatory fictions in Skinner’s view?
Explanatory fictions are hypothetical internal factors used to explain behaviors, such as “a need for achievement.” Skinner believed they are pseudo-explanations and recommended replacing them with descriptions of learning histories.
How would Skinner explain a behavior, like throwing a dish in anger?
Instead of saying “I got mad and threw the dish,” Skinner would describe it as: “The contingencies of reinforcement in my environment led to the behavior of throwing a dish.”
How did Skinner criticize psychodynamic, physiological, and cognitive psychology?
He criticized psychodynamic psychologists for relying on internal explanations.
He rejected physiological psychology for reducing behavior to nervous system activity.
He opposed cognitive psychology for using explanatory fictions to explain behavior.
How would Skinner explain a roommate’s studying behavior?
Instead of attributing the behavior to a “high need for achievement,” Skinner would focus on the reinforcement history and contingencies of reinforcement that explain the behavior of studying and spending time in the library.
What did Skinner think of studying brain function?
While he recognized its importance, Skinner believed that a thorough experimental analysis of behavior could be done without referencing the nervous system.
How did Skinner view cognitive psychology?
Skinner sarcastically referred to cognitive psychology as the “scientific creationism” of psychology due to its reliance on explanatory fictions. He believed both public and private events (like thinking or memory) could be studied scientifically through experimental analysis.
What is Skinner’s concept of public vs. private events?
Skinner believed there was no qualitative distinction between public (observable) and private (mental) events. Both could be understood through experimental analysis, and both are subject to contingencies of reinforcement.
Where did Skinner elaborate on his view of public vs. private events?
He outlined this view in his 1945 paper, “An Operational Analysis of Psychological Terms,” and labeled his approach as radical behaviorism.
What did Skinner believe was the ultimate goal of science?
Skinner believed the goal of science was to control nature, and true understanding occurred when one could demonstrate control over a phenomenon.
What was Skinner’s role in Project Pigeon during WWII?
Skinner worked on developing a guidance system using pigeons to direct missiles toward targets. The pigeons would peck at a target screen, and the missile would adjust its direction until the target was centered. This project helped Skinner see his behaviorist principles applied outside the lab.
What did Skinner mean by creating a “technology of behavior”?
Skinner aimed to apply behavioral principles to predict and control behavior, much like a technology is created based on a thorough understanding of physics. He wanted to demonstrate that behavior could be manipulated reliably through reinforcement.
What was Skinner’s first attempt to create a technology of behavior?
Skinner’s first attempt was the Project Pigeon, which involved training pigeons to guide missiles to targets. He built a successful prototype, but the military eventually canceled the project.
How did Skinner apply his behaviorism beyond the laboratory?
After Project Pigeon, Skinner became convinced that his behaviorist principles could be applied to psychotherapy, child development, education, and even in the design of a utopian society.
What is the air crib?
The air crib was an invention by Skinner designed to help parenting and child development. It was a climate-controlled crib aimed at providing an optimal environment for babies, ensuring they were comfortable and safe.
What is the programmed teaching machine Skinner developed?
Skinner developed a programmed teaching machine to facilitate learning. This was created long before the advent of personal computers, and it used principles of reinforcement to guide learning at the student’s pace.
How did Skinner view the role of a therapist in therapy?
Skinner saw the therapist as a controlling agent, helping to mold the client’s behavior by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior, guiding them towards more desirable actions.
What is Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)?
Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) is a therapeutic approach focused on the experimental analysis of behavior within the context of a person’s everyday life. It is grounded in Skinner’s work on operant conditioning.
What types of behavioral disorders is ABA commonly used to treat?
ABA is commonly used to treat children’s behavioral disorders, such as Autism and ADHD.
What was the focus of Ivar Lovass’s ABA therapy for children with autism?
The therapy focused on decreasing negative behaviors and increasing language and peer interaction using reinforcement techniques, with near-constant control over the child’s environment.
Who developed an intensive form of ABA for children with autism, and what was it called?
Ivar Lovass (1987) developed an intensive form of ABA, which he reported was highly effective for children with autism. This treatment typically involves more than 40 hours of intervention per week over two or more years.
Functional Analysis Examples
Why might a child throw a tantrum before bedtime?
To gain parental attention or delay bedtime (negative reinforcement).
How does arguing with a spouse reinforce the behavior?
It may reaffirm commitment or create temporary separation, reinforcing the argument.
What reinforcement maintains complaining behavior?
Attention, sympathy, and stress relief.
How does achieving good grades reinforce itself?
Praise from others and reduced anxiety about failure (positive reinforcement).
Why do children suck their thumbs or scratch their heads?
Self-soothing through automatic reinforcement (sensory stimulation).
How does self-injury (head banging) maintain itself?
It removes unwanted interactions (negative reinforcement).
What is the reinforcement behind cutting oneself?
It reduces anxiety or emotional distress (negative reinforcement).
Why might a child argue with and hit a sibling?
The sibling leaves, giving control over the situation (negative reinforcement).
How does crying about homework reinforce itself?
The teacher reduces the workload, reinforcing crying.
What reinforcement sustains bullying in cyberspace?
Peer approval and escalation of ridicule (social reinforcement).
What is Walden Two?
Walden Two is a fictional novel by B.F. Skinner, published in 1948, describing a Utopian society designed according to operant learning principles.
What is the plot of Walden Two?
In Walden Two, a professor visits a small rural community based on behaviorist principles. Life in the community is idyllic, with work assigned based on abilities and a management system involving “Planners,” “Managers,” and “Scientists.”
How is childrearing handled in Walden Two?
In Walden Two, childrearing is not left to individual parents, but is instead shared by the community. Children’s behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement, rather than aversive conditioning.
What are some key features of the community in Walden Two?
Key features of Walden Two include:
Strict equality of sexes (three male and three female planners),
Community-based childrearing,
Sustainable practices to protect natural resources,
Work assigned according to abilities.
How are children taught to handle frustration in Walden Two?
Children in Walden Two are taught frustration tolerance by being exposed to slightly frustrating experiences, which they can handle. They are then praised for handling these minor frustrations and gradually exposed to more challenging situations.
What was the purpose of the Air Crib?
Skinner created the Air Crib in 1944 as a technology to help ease parental burdens and support a young child’s development. It provided a comfortable environment for babies, allowing them to sleep and play in a temperature-controlled, moist, and filtered air environment.
How did Skinner’s daughter react to the Air Crib?
Skinner’s second daughter, Debbie, enjoyed the Air Crib. She spent time playing and sleeping in it, wearing only a diaper. Skinner described that she was able to move freely while breathing warm, moist, filtered air, and the environment kept her skin from becoming waterlogged.
What were some reactions to the Air Crib?
Positive Reaction: Alice Saunders, in 1948, praised the Air Crib, stating it took the drudgery out of parenting and made the baby’s life healthier and more pleasant.
Negative Reaction: Some critics, such as an anonymous letter to the District Attorney in Bloomington, Indiana, strongly opposed the Air Crib. They argued that Skinner was depriving his child of social life, sunlight, and fresh air, and that children were better off playing outside in a natural environment.
Was the Air Crib commercially successful?
Skinner attempted to sell the Air Crib, but it was not successful commercially. However, his daughter Deborah spent the first few years of her life in the Air Crib.
How did Deborah feel about her early childhood experience with the Air Crib?
Deborah later described her early childhood as unusual but not unloved. She found the Air Crib to be a wonderful alternative to traditional cribs, and she was a healthy child. She never cried unless injured or inoculated, and she didn’t have a cold until she was six years old.
What were some advantages of the Air Crib?
The Air Crib helped maintain a comfortable environment for babies, with warm, moist, filtered air. It also allowed free movement while keeping the baby healthy and comfortable without being waterlogged or exposed to loud noises.
Module 9 2A - Learning and Cognitive Approaches: Bandura
What does Piaget’s quote “What we see changes what we know” mean in cognitive psychology?
It means perception and knowledge influence each other. What we perceive shapes our understanding, and what we already know affects how we perceive new information.
How does perception influence human development?
Perception actively shapes how we interpret and make sense of experiences, influenced by past knowledge and attention.
How do past experiences affect cognition?
Past experiences act as a filter, influencing what we pay attention to and how we interpret new information.
How does Bandura’s social cognitive theory relate to cognitive development?
It emphasizes learning through observation, where cognitive processes like attention and motivation impact behavior and development.
How do cognition, environment, and physiology interact?
They interact to shape behavior, with cognition influencing how we interpret the environment and physiology affecting cognitive processes.
What role does attention play in cognitive processes?
Attention determines which information we focus on and process, affecting memory and learning.
What is the “constructive” nature of human development?
It means individuals actively build their understanding of the world through experience and interaction.
How does self-efficacy influence cognitive development?
Belief in one’s abilities boosts motivation and persistence, positively affecting learning and cognitive growth.
How does attention affect memory?
Attention is crucial for encoding information into memory. Without it, information may not be stored well.
Why is interpretation important in cognitive processes?
Interpretation helps us make sense of new information and integrate it with existing knowledge.
What is Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory?
It states that understanding behavior requires considering all the forces acting on a person at a given moment, including social influences and the environment.
How is personality understood in Lewin’s Field Theory?
Personality is understood by exploring the influences acting on the individual in the present moment, rather than through static traits or past experiences.
How does Field Theory explain human behavior?
It suggests that behavior is influenced by the entire “field” of forces at a specific time, not just isolated factors. This includes social and environmental factors.
What is meant by “contemporaneous causation” in Lewin’s theory?
It means behavior is caused by the forces present at the moment of action. Current influences (thoughts, feelings, environment) determine how we behave in real time.
Why is Lewin’s approach holistic?
It views behavior as a result of the entire social and environmental context, rather than breaking it down into isolated components.
What is Lewin’s definition of “life-space”?
Lewin defined life-space as the “totality of facts which determine the behavior of an individual at a certain moment,” considering both personal and environmental factors.
How do person and environment factors interact in Lewin’s theory?
Person and environment factors combine to create a new totality that influences behavior, shaping how we act in any given moment.
What are valences and vectors in Lewin’s Field Theory?
Valences are the positive or negative attractions of different forces, and vectors represent the direction or magnitude of these forces. Together, they make certain behaviors more or less likely.
Why is Lewin’s theory considered wholistic?
Lewin’s theory is wholistic because it views behavior as the result of the interaction between cognitive, social, and environmental factors, rather than isolated elements.
What role do channel factors play in behavior?
Channel factors are small situational factors that guide behavior by making one action easier than another. They can significantly influence decisions, even if they seem minor.
How did Lewin’s research on channel factors demonstrate their importance?
Lewin’s research showed that students with a map and a concrete plan were more likely to get a tetanus shot (28%) than those who just read about the effects (3%), showing how channel factors can guide behavior.
How does Piaget’s theory view cognitive development?
Cognitive development is seen as a constructive process where more complex ways of thinking emerge from simpler action patterns and earlier stages of development.
How do reflexes relate to cognitive development in Piaget’s theory?
Reflexes are the first action patterns infants use to engage with the world, and more complex cognitive structures develop as these initial actions are modified and built upon.
What is Piaget’s Constructive Theory of Cognitive Development?
Piaget’s theory suggests that we actively construct our understanding of the world through engagement and interaction with it, from infancy to adulthood.
What is the role of developmental stages in Piaget’s theory?
Each developmental stage in Piaget’s theory represents a unique way of understanding and organizing reality, shaped by constructive activity and interaction with the environmen
What is a schema in Piaget’s theory?
A schema is a cognitive structure that helps guide action in similar situations, consisting of organized ideas that grow and change with experience.
How do schemas develop in Piaget’s theory?
Schemas develop through assimilation (applying an old schema to a new situation) and accommodation (modifying the schema to fit new experiences).
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?
Assimilation is using an existing schema for new situations, while accommodation is changing the schema to better fit new experiences.
How do developmental stages relate to schemas?
Piaget’s stages (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational) represent different ways of applying and adapting schemas to understand and interact with the environment.
What does Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory emphasize about personality?
Bandura’s theory suggests that personality is shaped by the interaction of behavior, personal factors (thoughts, beliefs), and the environment.
What is the central human characteristic in Bandura’s theory?
Plasticity, meaning humans have the flexibility to learn a variety of behaviors in different situations.
How do people learn according to Bandura?
People learn vicariously, or by observing others, in addition to operant learning principles like those proposed by Skinner.
What is human agency in Bandura’s theory?
Human agency is the ability of people to regulate their own lives and make choices, rather than being controlled by the environment.
What is Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Causation model?
It shows that behavior, personal factors, and environmental factors all interact and influence each other.
How do people interact with their environment in Bandura’s theory?
People anticipate events, create ideas, and evaluate experiences using internal standards, not just respond to sensory input.
What role do people have in social systems, according to Bandura?
People are both the producers and products of social systems, with the capacity to exercise control over their lives.
Where and when was Albert Bandura born?
Bandura was born in 1925 in a small town in Alberta, Canada.
What was Bandura’s family background?
His parents were immigrants from Poland and Ukraine, and he grew up as the only boy with five older sisters.
What was Bandura’s education?
He earned an undergraduate degree in psychology from the University of British Columbia and a PhD in clinical psychology from the University of Iowa in 1951.
Why did Bandura choose the University of Iowa for his PhD?
He chose Iowa because its clinical program had a strong focus on learning theory.
What was Bandura’s career path?
After earning his PhD, Bandura joined Stanford University’s faculty, where he remained until his death in 2021.
What are some of Bandura’s major contributions?
He published Adolescent Aggression in 1959 and conducted the famous “bobo doll” experiment in 1961.
What leadership role did Bandura hold?
He served as the president of the American Psychological Association in 1974.
What does Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory combine?
It combines operant conditioning principles with internal cognitive mechanisms.
How does Bandura define personality?
Bandura views personality as a self-system built through internal thought processes, experience, and reinforcement.
What is the self-system in Bandura’s theory?
The self-system is the set of cognitive processes that help individuals perceive, evaluate, and regulate their behavior to be effective and appropriate in their environment.
How do reinforcement and internal factors affect behavior?
Behavior is influenced by both external reinforcement and internal factors like expectations, thoughts, plans, and goals.
How does Bandura view individuals in the learning process?
Individuals are active and constructive in their learning, not just passive responders to reinforcement.
What is Bandura’s view on how knowledge is acquired?
Bandura believed knowledge isn’t only gained through personal actions; observational learning plays a key role in cognitive and social development.
How does observational learning work according to Bandura?
People can learn by observing others without performing the behavior themselves, making reinforcement less essential for learning.
Why is observational learning more efficient than direct experience?
Observational learning allows individuals to learn from others’ experiences, making it faster and more efficient than learning solely through direct experience.
What is modeling in Bandura’s theory?
Modeling involves observing others and learning from their actions, which goes beyond imitation and includes adding, subtracting, and learning from the consequences of their behavior.
How does modeling involve memory?
Modeling requires symbolically representing information and storing it for later use.
What is the role of attention in observational learning?
Attention is crucial—people are more likely to focus on others they interact with often, find attractive, or whose behavior is important to them.
What is representation in observational learning?
Representation involves storing observations in memory, either verbally or non-verbally (e.g., imagery). Verbal coding speeds up the learning process.
What is behavioral production in observational learning?
After observing and retaining information, we produce the behavior and monitor our performance to evaluate how well we are doing.
How does motivation influence observational learning?
Motivation is key—learning is more effective when we’re motivated to perform the modeled behavior. Our desire to perform an action influences how well we apply the learned skill.
How does verbal coding help in observational learning?
Verbal coding allows us to rehearse behaviors symbolically, evaluate our actions, and decide which behaviors to adopt or discard.
What questions guide the performing process in observational learning?
When performing, we ask: “How can I do this?” (rehearse), “What am I doing?” (monitor), and “Am I doing this right?” (evaluate).
What is enactive learning?
Enactive learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors through direct experience, while evaluating the consequences of those behaviors.
How does enactive learning give people control over their lives?
It allows individuals to think about and evaluate the consequences of their actions, giving them control over the events shaping their lives.
What are the three functions of consequences in learning and self-regulation?
1) Informing actions: Consequences show the effects of our actions and guide future behavior.
2) Motivating behavior: Anticipating future outcomes motivates us to act accordingly.
3) Reinforcing behavior: Consequences can unconsciously reinforce behavior, but cognitive understanding makes learning more efficient.
What is Triadic Reciprocal Causation?
It’s the idea that human action results from an interaction between three factors: environment, behavior, and personal (cognitive and personal) factors.
How do the three factors interact in Triadic Reciprocal Causation?
The relative influence of behavior, environment, and person depends on which factor is strongest at a given moment. Cognition often plays a key role, but behavior or environment can also be dominant depending on the situation.
How does behavior influence action in Triadic Reciprocal Causation?
Behavior can sometimes be the most powerful factor, such as playing the piano for enjoyment.
How does environment influence action in Triadic Reciprocal Causation?
Environment can be the strongest influence in certain situations, like emergencies, where immediate action is required.
What is the role of chance in behavior and learning?
People can’t predict all environmental changes. Chance encounters (unexpected meetings) or fortuitous events (unanticipated environmental experiences) can influence behavior and learning.
What is Bandura’s view on human agency?
Bandura suggests humans have the ability to control their own lives using cognitive abilities, meaning they can self-regulate their actions.
What does Bandura mean by “human agency”?
Human agency refers to the capacity to intentionally use cognitive skills to control one’s actions and outcomes.
What are the core features of human agency?
Intentionality: Acting with purpose, involving planning.
Forethought: Setting goals, anticipating outcomes, and choosing actions to achieve desired results.
Self-reactiveness: Motivating and regulating our own actions.
Self-reflectiveness: Evaluating our motivations, values, and life goals, and assessing the impact of our actions and others’ behaviors on us.
What is self-efficacy?
Self-efficacy is the belief that one can perform behaviors that will lead to desired outcomes in specific situations.
How does self-efficacy influence behavior?
It affects what actions people take, how much effort they invest, how long they persist, and how they respond to setbacks.
Is self-efficacy situation-specific?
Yes, self-efficacy can be high in one situation and low in another, depending on the context.
What contributes to self-efficacy?
Mastery experiences: Past successes are the most influential source of self-efficacy.
Social modeling: Observing others, especially similar individuals, can boost self-efficacy.
Social persuasion: Encouragement or discouragement from others can influence self-efficacy.
Physical and emotional states: Emotions, like fear, can lower self-efficacy, while moderate arousal can enhance it.
What is collective efficacy?
Collective efficacy is the belief that a group’s combined efforts can lead to social change.
How does Bandura explain depression?
Depression arises when high personal standards lead to frequent failures, resulting in self-doubt and undervaluing accomplishments. This inhibits self-regulation processes like self-observation, judgment, and self-reactions.
How does depression affect self-regulation?
Depressed individuals may misjudge their performance, set unrealistically high standards, and treat themselves harshly due to perceived shortcomings.
How is aggression learned according to Bandura?
Aggression is learned through observation, direct experiences with reinforcements, training, and bizarre beliefs. The Bobo doll study showed that observing aggression can increase aggressive behavior in observers.
Why does aggression persist in individuals?
People continue aggressive behavior for reasons like enjoying harm (positive reinforcement), avoiding consequences (negative reinforcement), living up to personal standards (self-reinforcement), and observing others being rewarded for aggression.
What is the goal of social cognitive therapy?
The goal is self-regulation—helping individuals change dysfunctional behaviors and maintain those changes across different situations.
What is the therapist’s role in therapy?
The therapist aims to induce behavior change, generalize those changes to other situations, and maintain them over time.
What are therapeutic techniques in Bandura’s approach?
Overt or vicarious modeling: Observing live or filmed models performing desired behaviors.
Covert or cognitive modeling: Visualizing models performing desired behaviors.
Enactive mastery: Clients perform feared or desired behaviors directly.
Systematic desensitization: Combines relaxation techniques with observing models to reduce emotional arousal.
How does self-efficacy impact people with chronic diseases like Type 2 diabetes?
Self-efficacy helps individuals manage their disease by increasing their belief in their ability to follow treatment plans and control symptoms, leading to better health outcomes.
What did the study by Sacco et al. (2007) find?
Higher self-efficacy was linked to lower depression, better adherence to medical advice, lower BMI, and fewer diabetes symptoms. Self-efficacy also explained the link between BMI and depression—lower efficacy was associated with higher BMI and more depression.
How does self-efficacy affect depression in people with Type 2 diabetes?
Adherence to disease management plans increased self-efficacy, which in turn helped reduce depression, showing the importance of feeling in control of one’s health.
