Final Exam Flashcards
Dendrites
Receives input from other nerves
Axon
Action potential is sent through the
Synapse
Where two nerves meet
Do not directly touch: synaptic gap
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messages sent through the neuron
Myelin sheath
Wraps the nerve and moves messages quicker
Not all nerves have it
Electrical and chemical nerves
Electrical while passing through the nerve
Chemical while passing the synapse
Resting potential
A nerve does not have to constantly be passing messages/be electrically active
Makes ATP
Prepares to divide
Ready for action potential
-70 milivolts
Action potential
-55 milivolts to trigger
Neurotransmitters are sent through
Ions
Charged particles
Sodium and potassium
Ion channels
Sensitive to voltage
Sodium ion channel lets sodium through
Potassium ion channel lets potassium through
Resting potential: Sodium and Potassium ion channels
Most sodium is outside the cell
Most potassium inside the cell
Channels open: sodium enters, potassium leaves
Potassium channel opens slightly after sodium
Becomes positive in axon when enough excitatory neurotransmitters are received
Neuron nodes
spaces between myelin
ion channels are here in between myelin
signal jumps from node to node
CNS vs PNS
CNS: brain and spinal cord
PNS: Nerves going off of spinal cord
Corpus collosum
Nerve fibers in middle of brain where messages can crossover
Connects left and right hemisphere
Surface of brain
Wrinkles and folds to increase surface area and to fit more nerves
Receptors
Allows stimuli to be recognized
Signal is sent to nerve, then brain
Human senses
Hearing, sight, taste, smell, touch
Hearing
Receptors receive waves of pressure (sound waves)
Receptors for changes in pressure: hair cells in inner ear
Eardrum/Temponic membrane
Moves back and forth when hit by waves
Door between outer and middle
Eustachia tube
Middle ear
From ear to back of throat
Periodically opens and closes
Allows ear to repressurize so middle part is at atmospheric pressure (ears popping)
Ossicles
3 small bones in middle ear
hammer
anvil
stirrup
Each one moves each other, to the next
Cochlea
Filled with fluid and hair cells
As fluid moves, the hair cells move
Hair cells then generate an action potential
Cochlea fluid keeps balance
Outer ear
Canal and lobe
eardrum
Middle ear
eardrum
ossicles
Eustachia tube
Inner ear
Cochlea
Compound eyes
Insects, spiders, crustaceans
Lens and photoreceptors, but many little eye units
Good for a wide view
Pixelated view
Easy to see something move
Photons
Light is made of photons
Photoreceptors in eyes
Camera eyes
Humans, dogs, zoo animals
Light comes in from one location
Sclera
White of eye
Blocks light
Protective
Tough connective tissue
Pupil
Hole in eye
Cornea
Clear layer to protect pupil and let light through
Iris
Colored part of eye to adjust the amount of light entering
Lens
To focus light to photoreceptors in back of eye
Retina
Back of eye holds photoreceptors
Fovea
Where photoreceptors are most densely located in retina
Rods
Responds to low wavelength/dim light
Grayscale aspects of vision
Cones
Responds to high wavelength/color vision
Mostly active during day
Optic nerve
Sends vision info to brain
Chemoreceptors
Responsive to chemicals
Taste and smell
Components of taste
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
Savory(umami, activated by MSG)
Ammonia chloride
Ammonia chloride and Bitter
Protective because a lot of these things are harmful
Taste temperature sensations
Menthol
Capasaicin (scorille) (spicy)
Pressure sensations
Different amounts of pressure exertions necessary
Pain sensations
Chemicals leak and tell nerves something needs to be fixed
Hydrostatic skeleton
Jellyfish, sea animals
Allows some movement
Like a water baloon inside
Helps fight the current
Exoskeleton
Insects, spiders, scorpions
Skeleton on the outside
Made of glucose, very flexible
Needs to be shed, 8-10 hours to grow a new one
Endoskeleton
Collagen makes cartilage and bone
Cartilage
very flexible
made of collagen
Bone
Mineralized collagen and calcium
Strong
Joints
Human bones allow movement where they connect
Flexor
Contracts/shortens joints
Tendon
Muscle to bone connective tissue
Extensor
Extends muscle
Ligament
Connects bone to bone
cushions
absorbs shock
holds bones together
Hinge joints
Flex + extensor
knee, elbow
Ball and socket joint
Can twist
360 range of motion
Hips, shoulders
Still flexor and extensor but different arrangements
4 Necessities for muscle contraction and relxation
- Primary proteins
- Accessory proteins
- Calcium
- ATP
Primary proteins
Actin and myosin
Accessory proteins
Troponin and Tropomyosin
Sliding Filament Model
Sarcomeres contain thin filament (actin) and thick filament (myosin)
Myosin binds to actin naturally but needs ATP to pull it
Troponin and tropomyosin block myosin from binding to actin, muscles is relaxed.
Calcium is released from sacroplasmic reticulum
Accessory proteins remove from actin, myosin can now bind to actin
When calcium returns to SR, repeats
Calcium release from sacroplasmic reticulum
Synapse between nerve and muscle
Acetylcholine tells muscle to release calcium from SR
Enters through T-tubules
Endocrine system
Types of hormones you can make and how cells respond
Glands produce hormones and place them in circulation
Certain cells have receptor sites for particular hormones to bind to in order for the hormone to be expressed
Types of hormones
Amino Acid based
Protein based (larger version of amino acid)
Lipid based (testosterone, estrogen, cortisol) (can enter directly into nucleus)
Effects of hormones
Can cause direct change or cause changes in the cell that cause change
Alertness/Metabolic activity
Thyroid gland: produces thyroxine (requires iodine)
Goiter: Enlargement of thyroid gland. Disrupts production of thyroxine, metabolism decreases or increases
Parathyroids
4 smaller glands on each end of H shaped thyroid
Calcium production in thyroid
Thyroid produced calcitonin
Thyroid puts calcium in bones for strength
Parathyroids take calcium from bones to balance
Osteoporosis: Not receiving enough calcium in diet, parathyroids keep taking but thyroid cannot give; bones weaken
Glucose vs. Glycogen
-Glycogen stored in muscles and liver
Pancreas: insulin takes glucose which is either put in storage or used to make ATP
As glycogen increases, glucose decreases
Glucagon in the pancreas
Breaks down glycogen into glucoses
Diabetes
Pancreas does not make enough insulin or insulin receptors are not working
Or
Pancreas does not make enough glucagon made or glucagon receptors not working
2 types of Immunity
General/Innate responses (always the same)
Adaptive/Acquired response
Adaptive/Acquired Immunity response
2nd or 3rd time after facing new invader, immune system has learned how to protect
B and T cells: Make antibodies and protect from immune disease
Vaccine Development
(Antigen vs. Epitope)
Antigen: large foreign substance that triggers an immune response
Epitopes: Smaller, makes up antigens
Specific antibodies target
