Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
association claim
A
claim about two variables in which the levels of each vary systematically with one another such that when one variable changes, the other variable tends to change, too
2
Q
causal claim
A
claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the level of another variable
3
Q
claim
A
the argument an author or scientist is trying to make
4
Q
conceptual definition
A
a researcher’s definition of a variable at an abstract level (ex: depression is a feeling of sadness etc)
5
Q
constant
A
something that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question
6
Q
construct validity
A
a measure of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study
7
Q
correlate
A
(covary) to occur or vary together systematically
8
Q
covariance
A
one of the three rules for establishing causation, proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in proposed outcome variable
9
Q
curvilinear association
A
an association in which, as one variable increases, the level of the other variable changes its pattern (such as increasing and then decreasing)
10
Q
dependent variable
A
the variable that is measured in an experiment or the outcome variable
11
Q
experiment
A
a study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured
12
Q
external validity
A
a measure of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself
13
Q
frequency claim
A
a claim that describes a particular rate or level of a single variable
14
Q
generalizability
A
the extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts
15
Q
independent variable
A
a variable that is manipulated in an experiment
16
Q
internal validity
A
the ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables
17
Q
manipulated variables
A
a variable in an experiment that researchers control by assigning participants to its different levels
18
Q
measured variables
A
a variable in a study whose levels are observed and recorded
19
Q
negative association
A
an association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable (inverse)
20
Q
operational definitions
A
the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study (ex: score on a depression inventory)
21
Q
positive association
A
an association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable
22
Q
random assignment
A
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups
23
Q
scatterplot
A
a graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables
24
Q
statistical validity
A
the extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable
25
temporal precedence
one of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable
26
level
one of the possible variations, or values, of a variable
27
variable
an attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values
28
zero association
a lack of systematic association between two variables; no correlation
29
establishing causation
1. covariance (a changes, b changes)2. temporal precedence (a came before b)3. internal validity (no other explanation for why a makes b happen)
30
applied research
research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem
31
basic research
research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems
32
data
a set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies
33
empiricism
using verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory
34
falsifiable
a quality of a theory that applies when it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong (essentially, falsifiable means fallible)
35
hypothesis
a statement of the specific relationship between a study's variables that the researcher expects to observe if a theory is accurate aka a prediction
36
journal
a monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience
37
journalism
news and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience
38
parsimony
the degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon
39
theory
a statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
40
translational research
studies that use knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems
41
weight of the evidence
a conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory
42
comparison group
a group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way
43
confederate
an actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study
44
confirmatory hypothesis testing
the tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer
45
confound
a potential alternative explanation for a research finding
46
empirical journal articles
a scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study
47
pop-up principle/availability heuristic
the tendency to rely predominantly on evidence that easily comes to mind rather than use all possible evidence in evaluating some conclusion
48
present/present bias
the tendency to rely only on what is present and ignore what is absent when evaluating the evidence for a conclusion
49
probabilistic
a description of the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but nor necessarily all) of the possible cases
50
review journal article
an article summarizing all the studies that have been done in one research area
51
beneficence
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote participants' well-being
52
data fabrication
an ethical problem that occurs when researchers invent data that fit their hypotheses
53
data falsification
an ethical problem that occurs when researchers influence a study's results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in the hypothesized way
54
debriefed
to inform participants afterward about a study's true nature, details, and hypotheses
55
deception
the withholding of some details of a study from participants (deception through omission) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through omission)
56
informed consent
research participants' right to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate
57
institutional review board
IRB; a committee responsible for ensuring that research on humans is conducted ethically
58
justice
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it
59
plagiarism
the representation of the ideas or words of others as one's own
60
respect for persons
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protections
61
Belmont Report
beneficence, justice, respect for persons
62
APA Ethical Principles
beneficence and non-maleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for people's rights and dignity
63
categorical variable
a variable whose levels are categories (ex: male/female)
64
concurrent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, simultaneous outcome that it should be related to
65
content validity
the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct
66
convergent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct
67
correlation coefficient r
a single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, used to indicate the strength and direction of an association
68
Cronbach's alpha/coefficient alpha
a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability
69
discriminant validity/divergent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with measures of other, theoretically different constructs
70
face validity
the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question
71
internal reliability
in a measuring instrument that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased
72
interrater reliability
the degree to which two or more coders or observers agree in their ratings of a set of targets
73
interval scale
a quantitative measurement scale that has no 'true zero" and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (ex: temperature in degrees)
74
observational measure/behavioral measure
a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors
75
ordinal scale
a quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels are equivalent
76
physiological measure
a variable measured by recording biological data
77
predictive validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, future outcome that it should be related to
78
quantitative variable
a variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers
79
ratio scale
a quantitative scale of measurements in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means "nothing" (ex: weight)
80
reliability
the consistency of a measure
81
self-report measure
a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview
82
slope direction
the upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cloud of points in a scatterplot
83
strength
a description of an association indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them
84
test-retest reliability
the consistency in results every time a measure is used
85
acquiescence/yea-saying
answering "yes" or "strongly agree" to every item in a questionnaire or interview; a type of response set
86
census
a set of observations that contains all members of the population of interest
87
cluster sampling
a sampling method in which researchers randomly select clusters of participants
88
convenience sampling
choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access
89
faking bad
a situation that occurs when survey respondents give answers that make them look worse than they really are
90
fence sitting
a situation that occurs when respondents play it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every question in a questionnaire or interview
91
forced-choice format
a question type in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options
92
Likert scale
a scale containing multiple response options that are anchored by the terms 'strongly agree', 'agree', 'neither disagree nor agree', 'disagree', and 'strongly disagree'. A scale that does not follow this format exactly may be called a Likert-type scale
93
masked study
a study design in which the observers are unaware of the experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned
94
multistage sampling
a method of sampling in which two random samples are taken from some population: a random sample of clusters and then a random sample of people within those clusters
95
nay-saying
answering "no" or "strongly disagree" to every item on a questionnaire; a type of response set
96
observational research
the process of watching people or animals and systematically recording what they are doing
97
observer bias
a bias that occurs when observers' expectations influence their interpretation of the subjects' behaviors or the outcome of the study
98
observer effects/reactivity
a term referring to people or animals changing their behavior (reacting) because they know another person is watching
99
open-ended questions
a question that allows respondents to answer in any way they see fit
100
oversampling
a variation of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally overrepresents one or more groups
101
population
some larger group from which a sample is drawn, which the sample is intended to represent
102
probability sampling
the process of drawing a sample from a population of interest in such a way that each member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample (ex: randomly)
103
purposive sampling
the inclusion of only certain kinds of people in a sample
104
random assignment
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups
105
response sets
a shortcut respondents might use to answer the items in a self-report measure with multiple items, rather than responding to the content of each item
106
sample
the group of people, animals, or cases used in a study
107
self-selection
a form of sampling bias that occurs when a sample contains only people who volunteer to participate
108
semantic differential format
a self-report response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives (ex: 'easy' and 'hard')
109
simple random sampling
the most basic form of probability sampling in which the sample is chosen completely at random from the population, perhaps by drawing names out of a hat
110
snowball sampling
a variation on purposive sampling in which participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the study
111
socially desirable responding
(faking good) giving answers to a self-report measure that make one look better than one really is
112
stratified random sampling
a sampling method in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of interest and then randomly selects individuals within each of the categories
113
systematic sampling
a method of random sampling in which the researcher counts off to achieve a sample (ex: choosing every nth person in a population where n is a randomly chosen number)
114
unobtrusive observations
an observation made indirectly, through physical traces of behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a bystander
115
bivariate association
aka bivariate correlation; an association that involves exactly two variables
116
directionality problem
a situation in which it is unclear which variable in an association came first
117
moderator
a third variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between two other variables
118
outlier
one or a few cases that stand out as either much higher or much lower than most of the other scores in a sample
119
phi coefficient
a statistical test designed to evaluate the association between two categorical variables
120
point-biserial correlation
a statistical test used for evaluating the association between one categorical variable and one quantitative variable
121
spurious
an association that is attributable only to systematic mean differences on subgroups within the sample
122
statistically significant
aka statistical conclusion validity; the extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonanble
123
t test
a statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means
124
third-variable problem
a situation in which plausible alternative explanations exist for the association between two variables
125
between-subjects designs
an experimental design in which different groups pf participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable
126
carryover effects
a threat to internal validity that occurs when being exposed to one condition changes how people react to a later condition
127
concurrent-measures designs
an experiment using a within-groups design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable
128
condition
one of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment
129
confounds
a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity)
130
control group
a level of an independent variable that is intended to represent "no treatment" or a neutral condition
131
control variable
a potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose
132
counterbalancing
presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different orders to control for order effects
133
demand characteristics
cues that lead participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals
134
dependent variable
in an experiment, the variable that is measured, or the outcome variable
135
design confound
a second variable that happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results
136
independent variable
a variable that is manipulated in an experiment
137
independent-groups design
an experimental design in which different groups pf participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable
138
Latin square
a formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition appears in each condition at least once
139
manipulation checks
an extra dependent variable that researchers can include in an experiment to determine how well an experimental manipulation worked
140
matched-groups design
an experimental design in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets and the members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions
141
order effects
a threat to internal validity that occurs when being exposed to one condition changes how people react to a later condition
142
partial counterbalancing
a method of counterbalancing in which some, but not all, of the possible condition orders are represented
143
pilot study
a study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations
144
placebo group
a control group that is exposed to an inert treatment (ex: sugar pill)
145
posttest-only design
an experiment with an independent groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once
146
power
the probability that a study will show a statistically significant result when some effect is truly present in the population
147
practice effects
a type of order effect in which people's performance improves over time because they become practiced at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation or treatment)
148
pretest/posttest design
an experiment with an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice- once before and once after exposure to the independent variable
149
random assignment
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups)
150
repeated-measures design
an experiment with a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable
151
selection effect
a threat to internal validity that occurs when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level of the independent variable
152
systematic variability
in an experiment, the situation that occurs when the levels of a variable coincide in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound
153
treatment group
the participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a drug, therapy, or intervention
154
unsystematic variability
in an experiment, the levels of a variable occurring independently of experimental group membership, contributing to variability within groups
155
within-groups design
a study design in which each participant is presented with all levels of the independent variable
156
attritition
in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment, a threat to internal validity that occurs when a systematic type of participant drops out of a study before it ends
157
ceiling effect
an experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the high end of their possible distribution
158
demand characteristic
cues that lead participants to guess a study's hypotheses or goals
159
double-blind placebo control study
a study that uses a treatment group and a placebo group and in which neither the research assistant nor the participants know who is in which group
160
floor effects
an experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the low end of their possible distribution
161
history threat
a threat to internal validity that occurs when it is unclear whether a change in the treatment group is caused by the treatment or by a historical event that affects everyone or almost everyone in the group
162
instrumentation threat
a threat to internal validity that occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time from having been used before
163
maturation
a threat to internal validity that occurs when an observed change in an experimental group could have emerged more or less spontaneously over time
164
noise
the unsystematic variability among the members of a group in an experiment
165
null effect
a finding that an independent variable did not make a difference in the dependent variable- that there is no significant covariance between the two
166
one group, pretest/posttest design
a study in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest
167
placebo effect
an effect that occurs when people receiving an experimental treatment experience a change only because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment
168
regression threat
a threat to internal validity related to regression toward the mean, by which any extreme finding is likely to be closer to its own typical, or mean, level the next time it is measured (with or without the experimental treatment or intervention)
169
situation noise
irrelevant events, sounds, or distractions in the external situation that create unsystematic variability within groups in an experiment
170
testing threat
in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment, a kind of order effect in which scores change over time just because participants have taken the test more than once
171
cell
a condition in an experiment; a cell can represent the level of one independent variable in a simple experiment or one of the possible combinations of two independent variables in a factorial design
172
crossed factorial design
a study in which researchers cross two or more independent variables, or factors, and study each possible combination of the levels of the variables
173
factorial design
a study in which there are two or more independent variables , or factors
174
interaction
in a factorial design, a situation that occurs when the effect of one independent variable differs depending on the level of the other independent variable
175
main effect
in a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable
176
marginal means
in a factorial design, the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over the levels of another independent variable
177
nested factorial design
a study with more than one independent variable, in which levels of one independent variable are nested under, and unique to, the levels of another, higher-order independent variable
178
participant variable
a variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (or measured), not manipulated
179
interrupted time-series design
a quasi-experiment in which people are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the "interruption" caused by some event
180
multiple-baseline design
a small-N design in which researchers stagger their introduction of an intervention across a variety of contexts, times, or situations
181
nonequivalent control group design
a quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups
182
nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design
a quasi-experiment with two or more groups in which 1) participants have not been randomly assigned to groups; 2) participants are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the "interruption" caused by some event; and 3) the presence or timing of the interrupting event differs among the groups
183
quasi-experiments
a study that is similar to an experiment except that the researchers do not have full experimental control (ex: they might not be able to randomly assign participants to the independent variable conditions)
184
reversal design
a study in which a researcher observes a problem behavior both before and during treatment for a while to see if the problem behavior returns
185
selection-history threat
a threat to internal validity in which a historical or seasonal event systematically affects only the subjects in the treatment group or only those in the comparison group- not both
186
single-N design
a study in which researchers gather information from only one animal or one person (so basically a case study)
187
small-N design
a study in which researchers gather information from just a few cases
188
stable-baseline design
a study in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline period before beginning a treatment or other intervention; if behavior during the baseline is stable, the researcher is more certain of the treatment's effectiveness
189
Graphing interactions
•line graph•DV goes on y-axis•one IV on x-axis•other IV represented by lines
