Final Exam Flashcards
association claim
claim about two variables in which the levels of each vary systematically with one another such that when one variable changes, the other variable tends to change, too
causal claim
claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the level of another variable
claim
the argument an author or scientist is trying to make
conceptual definition
a researcher’s definition of a variable at an abstract level (ex: depression is a feeling of sadness etc)
constant
something that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question
construct validity
a measure of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study
correlate
(covary) to occur or vary together systematically
covariance
one of the three rules for establishing causation, proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in proposed outcome variable
curvilinear association
an association in which, as one variable increases, the level of the other variable changes its pattern (such as increasing and then decreasing)
dependent variable
the variable that is measured in an experiment or the outcome variable
experiment
a study in which one variable is manipulated and the other is measured
external validity
a measure of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself
frequency claim
a claim that describes a particular rate or level of a single variable
generalizability
the extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts
independent variable
a variable that is manipulated in an experiment
internal validity
the ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables
manipulated variables
a variable in an experiment that researchers control by assigning participants to its different levels
measured variables
a variable in a study whose levels are observed and recorded
negative association
an association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable (inverse)
operational definitions
the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study (ex: score on a depression inventory)
positive association
an association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable
random assignment
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups
scatterplot
a graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables
statistical validity
the extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable
temporal precedence
one of the three rules for establishing causation, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable
level
one of the possible variations, or values, of a variable
variable
an attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values
zero association
a lack of systematic association between two variables; no correlation
establishing causation
- covariance (a changes, b changes)2. temporal precedence (a came before b)3. internal validity (no other explanation for why a makes b happen)
applied research
research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem
basic research
research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems
data
a set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies
empiricism
using verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory
falsifiable
a quality of a theory that applies when it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong (essentially, falsifiable means fallible)
hypothesis
a statement of the specific relationship between a study’s variables that the researcher expects to observe if a theory is accurate aka a prediction
journal
a monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience
journalism
news and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience
parsimony
the degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon
theory
a statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
translational research
studies that use knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems
weight of the evidence
a conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory
comparison group
a group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way
confederate
an actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study
confirmatory hypothesis testing
the tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer
confound
a potential alternative explanation for a research finding
empirical journal articles
a scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study
pop-up principle/availability heuristic
the tendency to rely predominantly on evidence that easily comes to mind rather than use all possible evidence in evaluating some conclusion
present/present bias
the tendency to rely only on what is present and ignore what is absent when evaluating the evidence for a conclusion
probabilistic
a description of the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but nor necessarily all) of the possible cases
review journal article
an article summarizing all the studies that have been done in one research area
beneficence
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote participants’ well-being
data fabrication
an ethical problem that occurs when researchers invent data that fit their hypotheses
data falsification
an ethical problem that occurs when researchers influence a study’s results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing their research subjects to act in the hypothesized way
debriefed
to inform participants afterward about a study’s true nature, details, and hypotheses
deception
the withholding of some details of a study from participants (deception through omission) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through omission)
informed consent
research participants’ right to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate
institutional review board
IRB; a committee responsible for ensuring that research on humans is conducted ethically
justice
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it
plagiarism
the representation of the ideas or words of others as one’s own
respect for persons
an ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protections
Belmont Report
beneficence, justice, respect for persons
APA Ethical Principles
beneficence and non-maleficence, fidelity and responsibility, integrity, justice, respect for people’s rights and dignity
categorical variable
a variable whose levels are categories (ex: male/female)
concurrent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, simultaneous outcome that it should be related to
content validity
the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct
convergent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure associated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct
correlation coefficient r
a single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, used to indicate the strength and direction of an association
Cronbach’s alpha/coefficient alpha
a correlation-based statistic that measures a scale’s internal reliability
discriminant validity/divergent validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure does not associate strongly with measures of other, theoretically different constructs
face validity
the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question
internal reliability
in a measuring instrument that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased
interrater reliability
the degree to which two or more coders or observers agree in their ratings of a set of targets
interval scale
a quantitative measurement scale that has no ‘true zero” and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (ex: temperature in degrees)
observational measure/behavioral measure
a variable measured by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors
ordinal scale
a quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, in which it is unclear whether the distances between levels are equivalent
physiological measure
a variable measured by recording biological data
predictive validity
an empirically supported type of measurement validity that represents the extent to which a measure is related to a concrete, future outcome that it should be related to
quantitative variable
a variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers
ratio scale
a quantitative scale of measurements in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means “nothing” (ex: weight)
reliability
the consistency of a measure
self-report measure
a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview
slope direction
the upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cloud of points in a scatterplot
strength
a description of an association indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them
test-retest reliability
the consistency in results every time a measure is used
acquiescence/yea-saying
answering “yes” or “strongly agree” to every item in a questionnaire or interview; a type of response set
census
a set of observations that contains all members of the population of interest
cluster sampling
a sampling method in which researchers randomly select clusters of participants
convenience sampling
choosing a sample based on those who are easiest to access
faking bad
a situation that occurs when survey respondents give answers that make them look worse than they really are
fence sitting
a situation that occurs when respondents play it safe by answering in the middle of the scale for every question in a questionnaire or interview
forced-choice format
a question type in which respondents give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options
Likert scale
a scale containing multiple response options that are anchored by the terms ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘neither disagree nor agree’, ‘disagree’, and ‘strongly disagree’. A scale that does not follow this format exactly may be called a Likert-type scale
masked study
a study design in which the observers are unaware of the experimental conditions to which participants have been assigned
multistage sampling
a method of sampling in which two random samples are taken from some population: a random sample of clusters and then a random sample of people within those clusters
nay-saying
answering “no” or “strongly disagree” to every item on a questionnaire; a type of response set
observational research
the process of watching people or animals and systematically recording what they are doing
observer bias
a bias that occurs when observers’ expectations influence their interpretation of the subjects’ behaviors or the outcome of the study
observer effects/reactivity
a term referring to people or animals changing their behavior (reacting) because they know another person is watching
open-ended questions
a question that allows respondents to answer in any way they see fit
oversampling
a variation of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally overrepresents one or more groups
population
some larger group from which a sample is drawn, which the sample is intended to represent
probability sampling
the process of drawing a sample from a population of interest in such a way that each member of the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample (ex: randomly)
purposive sampling
the inclusion of only certain kinds of people in a sample
random assignment
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups
response sets
a shortcut respondents might use to answer the items in a self-report measure with multiple items, rather than responding to the content of each item
sample
the group of people, animals, or cases used in a study
self-selection
a form of sampling bias that occurs when a sample contains only people who volunteer to participate
semantic differential format
a self-report response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives (ex: ‘easy’ and ‘hard’)
simple random sampling
the most basic form of probability sampling in which the sample is chosen completely at random from the population, perhaps by drawing names out of a hat
snowball sampling
a variation on purposive sampling in which participants are asked to recommend acquaintances for the study
socially desirable responding
(faking good) giving answers to a self-report measure that make one look better than one really is
stratified random sampling
a sampling method in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories of interest and then randomly selects individuals within each of the categories
systematic sampling
a method of random sampling in which the researcher counts off to achieve a sample (ex: choosing every nth person in a population where n is a randomly chosen number)
unobtrusive observations
an observation made indirectly, through physical traces of behavior, or made by someone who is hidden or is posing as a bystander
bivariate association
aka bivariate correlation; an association that involves exactly two variables
directionality problem
a situation in which it is unclear which variable in an association came first
moderator
a third variable that, depending on its level, changes the relationship between two other variables
outlier
one or a few cases that stand out as either much higher or much lower than most of the other scores in a sample
phi coefficient
a statistical test designed to evaluate the association between two categorical variables
point-biserial correlation
a statistical test used for evaluating the association between one categorical variable and one quantitative variable
spurious
an association that is attributable only to systematic mean differences on subgroups within the sample
statistically significant
aka statistical conclusion validity; the extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonanble
t test
a statistical test used to evaluate the size and significance of the difference between two means
third-variable problem
a situation in which plausible alternative explanations exist for the association between two variables
between-subjects designs
an experimental design in which different groups pf participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable
carryover effects
a threat to internal validity that occurs when being exposed to one condition changes how people react to a later condition
concurrent-measures designs
an experiment using a within-groups design in which participants are exposed to all the levels of an independent variable at roughly the same time, and a single attitudinal or behavioral preference is the dependent variable
condition
one of the levels of the independent variable in an experiment
confounds
a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity)
control group
a level of an independent variable that is intended to represent “no treatment” or a neutral condition
control variable
a potential variable that an experimenter holds constant on purpose
counterbalancing
presenting the levels of the independent variable to participants in different orders to control for order effects
demand characteristics
cues that lead participants to guess a study’s hypotheses or goals
dependent variable
in an experiment, the variable that is measured, or the outcome variable
design confound
a second variable that happens to vary systematically along with the independent variable and therefore is an alternative explanation for the results
independent variable
a variable that is manipulated in an experiment
independent-groups design
an experimental design in which different groups pf participants are exposed to different levels of the independent variable such that each participant experiences only one level of the independent variable
Latin square
a formal system of partial counterbalancing that ensures that each condition appears in each condition at least once
manipulation checks
an extra dependent variable that researchers can include in an experiment to determine how well an experimental manipulation worked
matched-groups design
an experimental design in which participants who are similar on some measured variable are grouped into sets and the members of each matched set are then randomly assigned to different experimental conditions
order effects
a threat to internal validity that occurs when being exposed to one condition changes how people react to a later condition
partial counterbalancing
a method of counterbalancing in which some, but not all, of the possible condition orders are represented
pilot study
a study completed before (or sometimes after) the study of primary interest, usually to test the effectiveness or characteristics of the manipulations
placebo group
a control group that is exposed to an inert treatment (ex: sugar pill)
posttest-only design
an experiment with an independent groups design in which participants are tested on the dependent variable only once
power
the probability that a study will show a statistically significant result when some effect is truly present in the population
practice effects
a type of order effect in which people’s performance improves over time because they become practiced at the dependent measure (not because of the manipulation or treatment)
pretest/posttest design
an experiment with an independent-groups design in which participants are tested on the key dependent variable twice- once before and once after exposure to the independent variable
random assignment
the use of a random method (ex: flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups)
repeated-measures design
an experiment with a within-groups design in which participants respond to a dependent variable more than once, after exposure to each level of the independent variable
selection effect
a threat to internal validity that occurs when the kinds of participants at one level of the independent variable are systematically different from those at the other level of the independent variable
systematic variability
in an experiment, the situation that occurs when the levels of a variable coincide in some predictable way with experimental group membership, creating a potential confound
treatment group
the participants in an experiment who are exposed to the level of the independent variable that involves a drug, therapy, or intervention
unsystematic variability
in an experiment, the levels of a variable occurring independently of experimental group membership, contributing to variability within groups
within-groups design
a study design in which each participant is presented with all levels of the independent variable
attritition
in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment, a threat to internal validity that occurs when a systematic type of participant drops out of a study before it ends
ceiling effect
an experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the high end of their possible distribution
demand characteristic
cues that lead participants to guess a study’s hypotheses or goals
double-blind placebo control study
a study that uses a treatment group and a placebo group and in which neither the research assistant nor the participants know who is in which group
floor effects
an experimental design problem in which independent variable groups score almost the same on a dependent variable, such that all scores fall at the low end of their possible distribution
history threat
a threat to internal validity that occurs when it is unclear whether a change in the treatment group is caused by the treatment or by a historical event that affects everyone or almost everyone in the group
instrumentation threat
a threat to internal validity that occurs when a measuring instrument changes over time from having been used before
maturation
a threat to internal validity that occurs when an observed change in an experimental group could have emerged more or less spontaneously over time
noise
the unsystematic variability among the members of a group in an experiment
null effect
a finding that an independent variable did not make a difference in the dependent variable- that there is no significant covariance between the two
one group, pretest/posttest design
a study in which a researcher recruits one group of participants; measures them on a pretest; exposes them to a treatment, intervention, or change; and then measures them on a posttest
placebo effect
an effect that occurs when people receiving an experimental treatment experience a change only because they believe they are receiving a valid treatment
regression threat
a threat to internal validity related to regression toward the mean, by which any extreme finding is likely to be closer to its own typical, or mean, level the next time it is measured (with or without the experimental treatment or intervention)
situation noise
irrelevant events, sounds, or distractions in the external situation that create unsystematic variability within groups in an experiment
testing threat
in a repeated-measures experiment or quasi-experiment, a kind of order effect in which scores change over time just because participants have taken the test more than once
cell
a condition in an experiment; a cell can represent the level of one independent variable in a simple experiment or one of the possible combinations of two independent variables in a factorial design
crossed factorial design
a study in which researchers cross two or more independent variables, or factors, and study each possible combination of the levels of the variables
factorial design
a study in which there are two or more independent variables , or factors
interaction
in a factorial design, a situation that occurs when the effect of one independent variable differs depending on the level of the other independent variable
main effect
in a factorial design, the overall effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable, averaging over the levels of the other independent variable
marginal means
in a factorial design, the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over the levels of another independent variable
nested factorial design
a study with more than one independent variable, in which levels of one independent variable are nested under, and unique to, the levels of another, higher-order independent variable
participant variable
a variable such as age, gender, or ethnicity whose levels are selected (or measured), not manipulated
interrupted time-series design
a quasi-experiment in which people are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the “interruption” caused by some event
multiple-baseline design
a small-N design in which researchers stagger their introduction of an intervention across a variety of contexts, times, or situations
nonequivalent control group design
a quasi-experiment that has at least one treatment group and one comparison group, but participants have not been randomly assigned to the two groups
nonequivalent groups interrupted time-series design
a quasi-experiment with two or more groups in which 1) participants have not been randomly assigned to groups; 2) participants are measured repeatedly on a dependent variable before, during, and after the “interruption” caused by some event; and 3) the presence or timing of the interrupting event differs among the groups
quasi-experiments
a study that is similar to an experiment except that the researchers do not have full experimental control (ex: they might not be able to randomly assign participants to the independent variable conditions)
reversal design
a study in which a researcher observes a problem behavior both before and during treatment for a while to see if the problem behavior returns
selection-history threat
a threat to internal validity in which a historical or seasonal event systematically affects only the subjects in the treatment group or only those in the comparison group- not both
single-N design
a study in which researchers gather information from only one animal or one person (so basically a case study)
small-N design
a study in which researchers gather information from just a few cases
stable-baseline design
a study in which a researcher observes behavior for an extended baseline period before beginning a treatment or other intervention; if behavior during the baseline is stable, the researcher is more certain of the treatment’s effectiveness
Graphing interactions
•line graph•DV goes on y-axis•one IV on x-axis•other IV represented by lines
