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Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Contrast experimental research studies from descriptive (correlational) research studies

A

Correlational research is designed to discover relationships among variables. Experimental research is designed to assess cause and effect.

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2
Q

Explain why the null hypothesis is a core component of an experimental design

A

Null hypotheses in scientific research are essential because they provide a baseline for data, allows researchers to redirect experimentation, and makes the scientific method valid.

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3
Q

Explain what a p-value represents for the outcome of a study

A

The P value is defined as the probability under the assumption of no effect or no difference (null hypothesis), of obtaining a result equal to or more extreme than what was actually observed.

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4
Q

Describe the difference between a sample and a population

A

A population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. A sample is a selection of a portion of the population to represent the entire population.

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5
Q

List and describe the four basic types of study validity

A

-Construct validity: Are we studying what we intend to study? Are the constructs
(conceptual variables like impulsiveness) being measured/ manipulated?
-Statistical validity: How thorough are the statistics that we used to back up our
findings?
-Internal validity: Confidence that a study demonstrated that one variable causes
another.
-External validity: Generalizability of findings beyond study across populations,
settings, species. Established with replication.

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6
Q

Classical conditioning

A

The process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli

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7
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Learning process in which the consequences of a
behavior determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future

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8
Q

Reinforcement

A

Increases the probability of observing a behavior

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9
Q

Punishment

A

Decreases the probability of observing a behavior.

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10
Q

Acquisition

A

Process of establishing and strengthening a conditioned response.

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11
Q

Extinction

A

Process of weakening a conditioned response over time.
* Requires repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus without the
unconditioned stimulus.
* This leads to suppression, but not complete removal, of the conditioned
response.

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12
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

Temporary return of an extinguished response after
some time delay.

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13
Q

The three elements of learning

A

Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery

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14
Q

Naïve practice

A

Doing the same thing repeatedly

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15
Q

Deliberate practice

A

Deliberate practice is structured to improve specific elements of a skill through defined techniques. Practitioners focus above all on what they can’t do. They seek out areas of weaknesses impacting their overall performance, then target those.

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16
Q

System 1

A

Quick, automatic
processes and for
questions we think are easy. -generally proceeds without much effort

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17
Q

System 2

A

Mathematical
calculations, evaluating evidence, and anything else that requires attention.
-relies heavily on working
memory

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18
Q

Describe the importance of heuristics in the decision-making process.

A

They’re shortcuts (rules of thumb or informal guidelines) used to reduce the amount of thinking that is needed to make decisions
-Heuristic thinking often occurs unconsciously and allows us to free up
cognitive resources

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19
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Placing a person or an object in a category if that
person or object is like one’s stereotype for that category
-

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20
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Deciding based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
-When we think about events or make decisions, we tend to rely on information that is easy to retrieve.

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21
Q

Framing effect

A

Cognitive bias where people decide between options based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations

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22
Q

Describe the relationship between subjective value and actual value, according to prospect theory

A

Subjective value is how much something is worth to a person based on their feelings and preferences. Actual value is the real, objective value of something. According to prospect theory, people don’t always evaluate things based on their actual value. Instead, they compare them to a reference point and focus more on potential losses than gains.

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23
Q

List and describe the four stages of Piagetian development

A
  1. sensorimotor
  2. preoperational
  3. concrete operational
  4. formal operational
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24
Q

Describe the physiological and cognitive changes that accompany development through adulthood

A

Physiological: 30-50 decline in muscle mass, eyesight, hearing, reaction times, eye movements
Cognitive: Working memory capacity decreases, decline in fluid intelligence, loss of ability to gain new knowledge, dementia

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25
Q

Discuss delay discounting behavior and how it changes over the lifespan

A

It changes over the lifespan because the delayed reward and delayed gratification changes in value as a person matures

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26
Q

Describe the factors that influence formation of ingroups and outgroups

A

People can identify with ingroups and outgroups based on many factors, like ethnicity, gender, age, occupation, political affiliation, and even arbitrary criteria like being told they’re part of team A and someone else is a part of team B

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27
Q

Group polarization

A

The process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time

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28
Q

Groupthink

A

The practice of thinking or making decisions as a group in a way that discourages creativity or individual responsibility.

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29
Q

Partisan polarization

A

Divergence of political attitudes away from the center, towards ideological extremes

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30
Q

Personal attributes

A

Explanations of people’s behavior that refer to their internal characteristics

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31
Q

Situational attribute

A

Explanations of people’s behavior that refer to external events

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32
Q

Stereotypes

A

Cognitive schemas in which group membership is used to organize information about people

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33
Q

Prejudice

A

Negative feelings, opinions, beliefs associated with a stereotype

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34
Q

Discrimination

A

The differential treatment of people as a result of prejudice against their group

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35
Q

Explain the difference between an inter-individual and group-average approaches to studying behavior

A

Inter-individual means studying behavior based on an individual alone whereas group-average studies the social norms

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36
Q

Trait approach

A

Focuses on how individuals differ in personality dispositions

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37
Q

Humanistic approach

A

Approaches to studying personality that emphasize how people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding

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38
Q

Relationship between temperaments and personality traits

A

The gene-environment correlation phenomenon:
-Genes and environment affect not only behavior but also each other
-Even if genes and environments are unrelated to start with, they become
complementary over time because of decisions people make

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39
Q

List and describe the Big Five traits used to assess personality

A

-openness to experience
-conscientiousness
-extraversion
-agreeableness
-neuroticism

40
Q

Describe the relationship between age and trait stability

A

traits stay relatively stable throughout life, particularly 50+, lowest stability in childhood, life events affect traits

41
Q

Dimensional

A

Considers psychological disorders along a
continuum on which people vary in degree rather than in kind.
-Recognizes that many psychological disorders are extreme versions of normal feelings

42
Q

Categorical

A

A person either has a psychological disorder or does not
-Fails to capture differences in the severity of a disorder

43
Q

Generalized anxiety disorder

A

State of constant anxiety not associated with any specific object or event

44
Q

Social anxiety disorder

A

Fear of being negatively evaluated by others

45
Q

Major depressive disorder

A

A disorder characterized by severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities

46
Q

Persistent depressive disorder

A

Not severe enough to be diagnosed as major
depressive disorder (sometimes called dysthymia)

47
Q

Describe the behavioral basis of autism spectrum disorder

A

Developmental disorder characterized by deficits in social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted interests
-Impairments in social interactions
-Restrictive or repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities

48
Q

Describe cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and its use in treatment of psychological disorders

A

CBT: A therapy that incorporates techniques from cognitive therapy+behavior
therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors.
-CBT is about as equal as antidepressants. Can be effective on its own, but
combining it with antidepressants might be more effective than each separate treatment option.

49
Q

Unconditioned reflex

A

Automatic connection between a stimulus (such as food) and a response

50
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

Event that automatically elicits an unconditioned
response

51
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

The action that the unconditioned stimulus elicits

52
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

Paired with the UCS, elicits conditioned response after
learning

53
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

Response elicited by the CS

54
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

Extension of a conditioned response from the training
stimulus to similar stimuli.

55
Q

Comparing classical conditioning and operant conditioning

A

Classical conditioning: noticing patterns between stimuli
Learned association: association between CS and US

Operant conditioning: requires an action that has a consequence
Learned association: association between action and consequence

56
Q

Positive reinforcement:

A

The administration of a positive stimulus to increase
the probability of a behavior being repeated

57
Q

Negative reinforcement:

A

The removal of a negative stimulus to increase the
probability of a behavior being repeated

58
Q

Reinforcer:

A

Any stimulus that follows a response and
increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated

59
Q

Negative punishment

A

Administering a negative experience

60
Q

Positive punishment

A

Removing a positive experience

61
Q

Three aspects of motor skills

A

Action execution – Produce precise, coordinated movements
Action selection – Choose the appropriate behavior for a given situation
Speed of selection – Quickly make the appropriate choice

62
Q

Types of learning

A

Non-associative: learning to adjust responses to a repeated stimulus
Associative: learning about the link between two stimuli or events that go together
Social: learning by instruction or observing how others behave
Skill: earning complex
behaviors or abilities
through deliberate practice

63
Q

Memory

A

the ability to store and retrieve information

64
Q

Episodic memory:

A

memory for one’s past
experiences that are identified by a time and place

65
Q

Semantic memory:

A

memory for knowledge of facts independent of personal experience

66
Q

Implicit vs explicit memories

A

information we store or remember unconsciously is called implicit memory, while the information we memorize consciously is known as explicit memory

67
Q

Three primary stages of memory processing

A

Encoding: Acquisition of new memories
Storage: Consolidation
Retrieval: Accessing stored memories

68
Q

Anchoring:

A

The tendency to rely on the first piece of information encountered or information that comes most quickly to mind

69
Q

Loss Aversion:

A

The tendency for people to be more concerned about losses than gains

70
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

Birth-2 years
-Infants acquire information
about the world through their senses and motor
skills
-Reflexive responses develop into more
deliberate actions through the development and
refinement of schemes

71
Q

Object permanence:

A

The understanding that an
object continues to exist even when it cannot be
seen

72
Q

Sensorimotor learning

A

During the sensorimotor stage, infants begin learning about the relationship between sensation (e.g., vision or audition) and movement generation

73
Q

Preoperational stage

A

2-7 years
Children think symbolically about objects, but they reason based on intuition and superficial appearance rather than logic.

74
Q

Egocentrism:

A

The tendency for preoperational thinkers to view the world through their own experiences

75
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

7-12 years
-During this stage, children begin to think about and
understand logical operations, and they are no
longer fooled by appearances.
-Children begin to understand that some actions are reversible
-Still cannot reason abstractly, or hypothetically, about what might be possible.

76
Q

Formal operational stage

A

12+ years
-Adolescents can think
abstractly, and they can formulate and test
hypotheses through deductive logic.
-Adolescents can consider abstract notions
and think about many viewpoints at once.

77
Q

Temperaments:

A

Biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways

78
Q

Define personality trait:

A

A person’s pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior, that’s relatively consistent over time and across situations

79
Q

Threats to internal validity

A

History, maturation, instrumentation, testing, regression to the mean, attrition, selection

80
Q

Comorbidity

A

Many psychological disorders occur together

81
Q

What criteria do psychologists use to identify behavior as pathological?

A

If the behavior is maladaptive, harmful, disruptive

82
Q

Compare and contrast explicit and implicit measures of personality

A

Explicit: self-report surveys–include a large inventory of traits. Participants might distort the truth to appear more positive
Implicit: behavioral measures–using an environment to make assumptions about someone’s personality. Other examples of implicit measures include projective measures

83
Q

Idiographic approaches:

A

Person-centered approaches to studying personality; focus is on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons

84
Q

Nomothetic approaches:

A

Approaches to assessing personality that focus on
how common characteristics vary from person to person

85
Q

Situationism:

A

The theory that human behavior is determined by surrounding circumstances rather than by personal qualities.

86
Q

Biological trait theory

A

-Personality traits had two major dimensions: introversion/extraversion and emotional stability
-Proposed that personality traits are based on biological processes
that produce behaviors, thoughts, and emotions

87
Q

Three personality characteristics considered temperaments

A

Activity level, emotionality, sociability

88
Q

Conformity:

A

Altering one’s behaviors and opinions to match those of other people or to match other people’s expectations

89
Q

Normative influence:

A

People conform in order to fit in with the group, even when they believe the group is doing the wrong thing

90
Q

Informational influence

A

People conform when they think that the behavior of others is correct or appropriate

91
Q

Social norms

A

-Set expectations about behavior and the consequences of deviating
from those expectations.
-People who go against the group risk criticism, embarrassment, and ostracism

92
Q

Reciprocity

A

If Person A helps (or harms) Person B, then Person B will help (or harm) Person A

93
Q

Social identity theory

A

Ingroups perceive themselves to be members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership

94
Q

Correspondence bias

A

The tendency to expect that people’s actions correspond with their beliefs and personalities

95
Q

Fundamental attribution error

A

In explaining other people’s behavior, the tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors

96
Q

Actor/observer discrepancy

A

People focus on situations to explain their own behaviors, and focus on dispositions to explain other people’s behavior

Psychology (8 decks)

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