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Psychology > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Theory

A

Explanation based on observations

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

Prediction based on theory

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3
Q

Research

A

Test of the hypothesis, yields data that either supports or refutes

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4
Q

Aspects of a good theory

A

-falsifiable
-motivates new hypotheses
-parsimonious

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5
Q

Replication

A

Repetition of a research study to confirm the results

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6
Q

Reasons a study may fail to replicate

A

-benign: differences in study design across replications
-less benign: original study was a false positive
-even less benign: results of the original study were doctored to support the original hypothesis

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7
Q

Independent variable

A

Researcher actively manipulates one or more variables

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8
Q

Dependent variable

A

Measures how the variables affect the participants’ responses

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9
Q

Independent-groups (between-subject) design

A

-Each subject participates in only one condition of the IV
-Random assignment

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10
Q

Dependent-groups (within-subject) design

A

-Every subject participates in all conditions of the IV
-Counterbalancing: Order of conditions is varied across subjects

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11
Q

Descriptive Research

A

-Researcher measures variables but does not actively manipulate
them
-Results describe characteristics of variables and relationships
between variables
-Does not provide conclusions about cause

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12
Q

Types of descriptive research

A

-Case studies
-Observational studies
-Surveys
-Correlation studies

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13
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the relationship between two variables

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14
Q

Correlation coefficient

A

A mathematical estimate of the strength of this relationship

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15
Q

Scatter plot

A

A convenient way to show correlation graphically

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16
Q

Correlation does not

A

Establish causation

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17
Q

Quantitative Research

A

Relies primarily on numerical data and statistical analysis to describe
and understand human behavior

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18
Q

Qualitative Research

A

-Seeks to achieve thematic description and understanding of behavior,
primarily through nonstatistical analysis of data
-May examine data without the use of statistics

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19
Q

Mixed-methods research

A

Leverages a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods

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20
Q

Laboratory research

A

-Lab setting affords most control over experimental factors
-The effects of the IV can be isolated
-High internal validity – We can be confident in the results of the study

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21
Q

Field research

A

-Research is conducted in a more realistic setting
-High external validity – The results likely apply to a broader context

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22
Q

Population

A

The group that a researcher
is interested in examining defined by specific characteristics such as residency, occupation, gender or age

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23
Q

Convenience Sample

A

Chosen for ease
of study (e.g., undergraduate studies,
polling in a single city or county). Results probably do not generalize to the population

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24
Q

Representative sample

A

Resembles the population (e.g., percent male/female,
percent young/old, demographics)

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25
Q

Random sample

A

Every member of the
population has an equal chance of being drawn (more well-suited to represent the population)

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26
Q

Random sampling

A

Uses random selection (all members of a particular population or subpopulation have an equal chance of being selected)

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27
Q

Random sampling with replacement:

A

A selected member is returned to the pool and may be selected again.

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28
Q

Random sampling without replacement:

A

Once selected, a member is removed from the pool
and cannot be selected again

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29
Q

Stratified random sampling:

A

Sampling key subpopulations based on
specific characteristics in the same proportion as in the population

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30
Q

Convenience sampling:

A

Consists of those who are available and willing to
participate

31
Q

Quota sampling:

A

Sample represents key subpopulations

32
Q

Maximum variation sampling:

A

Sample represents the full range of extremes

33
Q

Internal replication

A

Occurs when researchers follow up their initial study with one or more replications and present this series of studies in a single research report.

34
Q

Independent replication

A

Is a replication conducted by researchers who were not part of the original research group.

35
Q

Complete (full) replications

A

Precisely mirror the original study.

36
Q

Partial replications

A

Include some aspects of the original study.

37
Q

Direct (exact) replication

A

Researchers mimic original procedures.

38
Q

Conceptual replications

A

Examine the same research question but operationalize constructs differently.

39
Q

Replication with extension

A

Add a new design element to the original study.

40
Q

Construct validity

A

Are we studying what we intend to study?

41
Q

Statistical validity

A

How thorough are the statistics that we used to back up our findings

42
Q

Internal validity

A

How much confidence can we have in our
experimental result

43
Q

External validity

A

How generalizable are our findings?

44
Q

Seven basic threats to internal validity

A
  1. History
  2. Maturation
  3. Testing
  4. Instrumentation
  5. Regression to the mean
  6. Attrition (subject loss)
  7. Selection
45
Q

History

A

Events to which people are exposed while participating in a study, but that are not part of the experimental manipulation
-Solution(s): Block randomization in dependent-groups studies

46
Q

Maturation

A

Ways in which people naturally change over time, independent of their participation in a study
-Solution: Random assignment to experimental groups

47
Q

Testing

A

The act of measuring individuals’ responses may affect their responses
on subsequent measures.
-Solution: Avoid pretesting or ensure that all participants complete a pretest.

48
Q

Instrumentation

A

Changes that occur in a measuring instrument during data collection
-Solution: Random assignment; exclude participants with extreme scores

49
Q

Regression to the mean

A

The statistical concept that when two variables are not perfectly correlated, more extreme scores on one variable will be associated
overall with less extreme scores on the other variable
-Solution: Random assignment; exclude participants with extreme scores

50
Q

Attrition (subject loss)

A

Participants fail to complete a study
-Solution:
Establish why participants drop out
Establish whether participants who remain in differ from participants
who left

51
Q

Selection

A

At the start of a study, participants in the various conditions already
differ on a characteristic that can partly or fully account for the eventual
results
-Solution(s): Random assignment

52
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

The numbers used to summarize the characteristics of a sample.

53
Q

Frequency

A

Count of how many times a score occurred

54
Q

Percentage

A

Proportion of a score within a sample

55
Q

Cumulative percentage:

A

Proportion of the sample that falls within a specified interval

56
Q

Positively skewed:

A

Tail is on the right with more scores clustered at the low end of the scale

57
Q

Negatively skewed:

A

Tail is on the left with more scores clustered at the high end of the scale

58
Q

Uniform Distribution

A

All scores have roughly the same frequency

59
Q

Measures of central tendency

A

Median, mean, mode

60
Q

Median

A

The score that cuts the sample in half; 50th percentile

61
Q

Mean

A

The arithmetic average

62
Q

Mode

A

The most frequent score in a sample

63
Q

Range:

A

Distance between the minimum and maximum score

64
Q

Standard deviation:

A

How much, in general, scores differ from the mean

65
Q

Variance:

A

Standard deviation squared

66
Q

Inferential statistics:

A

Statistical analysis of data gathered from a sample to draw conclusions about a population from which the
sample is drawn.

67
Q

Hypothesis testing:

A

The process of determining the probability of obtaining a particular result or set of results

68
Q

Sampling distribution:

A

A distribution obtained from multiple samples of the same size drawn from the same population

69
Q

Null hypothesis (Ho):

A

A prediction of no difference between groups of the dependent variable

70
Q

Alternative hypothesis (Ha):

A

A prediction of the result if the null hypothesis is
not true

71
Q

Criterion of p < .05

A

Indicates that there is less than a 5% chance that the
results were due to chance alone.

72
Q

P = 0.05 means

A

If the null hypothesis is true, then there was a 5% chance that we would obtain our result. There is a 5% chance that our result was due entirely to chance

73
Q

Type I error:

A

The probability of rejecting a true Ho; defined by the probability of the significance level of your findings
“false positive”

74
Q

Type II error:

A

The probability of incorrectly retaining a false Ho
“false negative”

Psychology (8 decks)

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