Final Exam Flashcards
CH 1.3)
A standard approach used to test ideas and answer questions about the natural world through empirical evidence (direct experimentation and observation)
the scientific method
1.3)
What is the scientific method in order?
- observation
- asking questions about observations
- making a hypothesis
- make predictions about hypothesis
- experiment to test hypothesis
- analyze data
- draw conclusions (does data support or reject hypothesis)
1.3)
a testable and falsifiable tentative explanation made for an observable phenomenon with no assumption for its truth
hypothesis
1.3)
“changeable” elements of an experiment
variables
1.3)
a condition that is purposely changed to see if it has an affect on some other factor
independent variable
(IV=the thing you change in the experiment)
(depicted on the x-axis, horizontal)
1.3)
the factor that is measured to see if it changes depending on the changing independent variable
dependent variable
(DV= the thing you measure in the experiment)
(depicted on the y-axis , vertical)
1.3)
other conditions held constant for all subjects in order to only test the specific effects of the IV on the DV
standardized variables
1.3)
A group that does not receive a treatment and serves as a basis for comparison.
control group
1.3)
assigning experimental subjects to different groups in a random fashion
randomization
1.3)
measurable change not attributable to
medication or treatment
placebo effect
1.3)
Describe the 3 different blind methods in a experiment
Single-blind study: only the subjects do not
know what treatment they are receiving
Double-blind study: both subjects AND
investigators do not know what treatments
Triple-blind study: neither subject, investigator,
or data analyst know who got what
1.3)
a very broad in scope comprehensive explanation for natural phenomena based on numerous studies
theory
1.3)
the practical application of scientific knowledge and provides tools for scientific inquiry and advancement.
technology
1.3)
statements and beliefs claiming scientific merit yet results are typically not based on the scientific method, controlled experiments, or peer review
pseudoscience
2.1)
individual particles of pure matter (elements)
atoms
2.1)
any material that occupies physical space in the universe
matter
2.1)
a pure atomic substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances
element
2.1)
what is the difference between elements atomic number and atomic mass?
atomic number is the # of protons in the nucleus while atomic mass is calculated by adding the masses of sub-atomic particles and standardized
in “atomic mass units” (AMU
2.1)
What 6 elements make up about 98% of the mass of most organisms?
nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur
2.1)
an atom with extra of fewer electrons
ion
cation - lose electron
anion - gain an electron
2.1)
modified atom that has extra neutrons
isotope
2.1)
the average atomic mass of all isotopes of an element
Atomic weight
2.2)
the attraction of atoms through the sharing or
stealing electrons
chemical bond
2.2)
the electrons occupying the outermost electron shell and are other electrons available for chemical reactions
valence electrons
2.2)
How many electrons fit in the outer shells?
8
2.2)
what kind of bond?
- the electrostatic attraction between a cation (+) and an anion (-)
- occurs between two atoms with very different EN whose valence shells are nearly full and
nearly empty
ionic bond
2.2)
What kind of bond?
- 2+ atoms share valence electrons which binds them together
- occur when two atoms share electrons to complete
each other’s valence shell needs
- usually depicted as dots or lines between atomic symbols
covalent bond
2.2)
weak electrostatic attraction between a proton (often H) in one molecule and an electronegative atom (like O,N,F) in another molecule
hydrogen “bonds” is
2.5)
macromolecules composed of many similar units covalently bound together
ex: natural rubber, starches, fiber, DNA/RNA, proteins etc..
polymer
2.5)
the single units of a polymer
monomer
2.5)
the process by which water is split/broken up
hydrolysis
2.5)
molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. It has a ratio of 1:2:1
carbohydrate
a plant polysaccharides (a starch) is used as energy storage molecule in plants
amylose
2.5)
polysaccharides cellulose (fiber) is used for structure in the plant cell wall
- IS NOT DIGESTIBLE BY HUMANS
cellulose
2.5)
animals store glucose in muscle and liver in the form of what?
glycogen
2.5)
What are proteins ? and what are they made up of?
they are polymers made up of amino acid monomers.
it is a chain of amino acids linked by covalent peptide bonds
2.5)
What determines the main acid order in proteins?
The DNA sequences of protein-coding genes determine the amino acid sequence of proteins.
2.5)
which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? :
the linear sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide
primary
2.5)
which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? :
hydrogen bonds between amino acids cause chain to coil, form sheets, or make loops
- alpha helix and beta sheets
secondary
2.5)
which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? :
the final folded shape of a single polypeptide chain
tertiary
2.5)
which of the 4 levels of structure in proteins? :
some proteins require multiple polypeptide chains for function
quaternary
2.5)
What does protein shape depend on?
Protein shape depends son amino acid sequence and R-groups
2.5)
What protein function depend on?
Protein function is critically dependent on shape (conformation)
2.5)
What is denaturing?
Denaturing is the process by which a protein destroys the 3D shape and results in permanent loss of a structure and function.
2.5)
What are the biological functions that proteins perform in a cell?
structural functions, contractile/movement functions, transportation, and storage/energy functions
2.5)
a 2-stranded nucleic acid polymer that contains all
genetic instructions for each organism and is used to move genetic information through time (reproduction)
deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA)
2.5)
a single-stranded nucleic acid polymer that is essential in the expression of genes
* “middleman” between DNA and protein
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
2.5)
What nucleotides are associated with DNA?
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine
2.5)
What nucleotides are associated with RNA?
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil
2.5)
Through what process does DNA and RNA form base pairs? (adenine with thymine.. etc)
hydrogen bonding
2.5)
when does RNA base pairing occur?
during RNA synthesis and during protein synthesis
2.5)
What is the central dogma of biology?
DNA->RNA->Protein
2.5)
a general class of carbon-based non-polar or very weakly polar molecules with numerous functions including desiccation, cell membrane, insulation, and energy
lipids
2.5)
What are the types of lipids?
fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes
2.5)
These are major components cell membranes
and have unique chemistry resulting in a bilayer in
aqueous environment. They can orient based on polarity and hydrophobicity
phospholipids
2.5)
When dumped in a mix of oil and water, what part of the phospholipid is exposed to the oil and what part is exposed to then water?
The NONPOLAR HYDROPHOBIC tails (fatty acids) are exposed to the oil.
The POLAR HYDROPHILIC heads are exposed to water
3.2)
What cell structures do both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have in common?
chromosomes, cytosol, plasma (cell) membrane, and ribosomes
3.2)
* DNA found in nucleoid region
* Organelle (not membrane-bound): Ribosomes for protein
production
* Possess a carbohydrate and protein cell wall around the cell
membrane (bacteria= peptidoglycan)
* Sometimes produce a polysaccharide capsule or mucilage
* Pili and Flagella/ flagellum- sensory and movement structures
This describes :
a prokaryotic cell (domain bacteria and domain archaea)
3.2)
What are the general eukaryotic cell features?
- DNA in nucleus
- Mitochondria (ATP production)
- Membrane system and organelles:
- ER
- Golgi
- vesicles
- peroxisomes
3.2)
What is an animal specific eukaryotic feature?
lysosomes
3.2)
What is a fungi-specific eukaryotic feature?
cell wall - chitin
3.2)
What are some plant - specific eukaryotic features?
- Cell wall- cellulose
- Central vacuole
- Chloroplasts (photosynthesis)
- Plasmodesmata- pores between cells
3.4)
What are the two processes of gene expression?
transcription and translation
3.4)
This gene expression begins in the nucleus and copies the coding sequence of DNA into the complementary messenger RNA (aka mRNA) sequence
transcription
(think about “transcribing” notes from a textbook)
3.4)
This gene expression continues in the cytoplasm when mRNA is used as a template to synthesize protein.
- mRNA will exit the nucleus and encounter free or bound ribosomes
- Ribosomes are protein and RNA-based organelles that
build proteins from mRNA code (synthesis)
translation
( think about translating one language into another language.. nucleic acid –> amino acid)
3.4)
This system is used to make, modify, and move
various cellular products (protein, carbohydrate, or lipid) to specific cellular locations or outside the cell
eukaryotic endomembrane system
3.4)
the eukaryotic site for lipid synthesis and chemical detoxification in the cell
smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
3.4)
the eukaryotic site for further modification and packaging of proteins
(aka the cellular “post office” )
Golgi apparatus
3.4)
the recycling and garbage removal
centers of animal cells
- Break down foreign components
or damaged organelles
- is found in many white blood cells
- has a pH of 4.8
lysosomes
3.4)
What structures do plant cells have that animal cells DONT have?
cell wall, chloroplasts, and central vacuole
3.4)
The cellular energy producing centers in ALL eukaryotic cells
- makes ATP
mitochondria
4.4)
What is the sum of all cellular reactions in the body (anabolic & catabolic reactions)
metabolism
4.4)
a substance that increases the rate of a chemical
reaction without itself undergoing a permanent chemical change
a catalyst
ex: an enzyme is a catalyst
4.4)
What is an active site, a substrate, and an induced model fit?
Active site: a site on the enzyme where the
substrate binds
Substrate: the molecule(s) that the enzyme processes
Induced Fit Model: the enzyme changes
shape so it can bind the substrate tighter
4.4) an energetic barrier to spontaneous reactions- additional energy required to get the reaction started (in both exergonic and endergonic rxns)
This is activation energy
Note: enzymes lower the required activation needed for reactions and speed up reactions
4.4) Enzyme Regulation:
non-substrate molecule fits into the active site and blocks real substrate access
* when a competitive inhibitor is bound enzymatic output decline
competitive inhibition
4.4) Enzyme Regulation:
remains permanently bound in the active site- renders enzyme dead
suicide inhibitor
4.4) Enzyme Regulation:
some cellular product binds to enzyme on a location away from active site –> active site shape changes
allosteric regulation
4.5).
What is it called when…
* Some molecules can pass freely through the
phospholipid bilayer (small, uncharged, non-polar,
lipids, gases)
* Some require transport proteins (large,
charged, and polar)
* Others may never enter
selective permeability
4.5)
The process by which atoms, ions, molecules, or energy automatically moves from regions of high concentration to low concentration
diffusion
4.5)
What is osmosis, describe it?
it is the diffusion of water molecules between two solutions with different solute concentrations and occurs across a selectively permeable membrane
4.5)
What are 2 ways to think about osmosis?
- water molecules diffuse down concentration gradients
- “water follows solutes
4.5)
describe the difference between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic concentrations
isotonic = “same strength”, inside and outside of cell has equal solute concentration
hypertonic = the outside of the cell has a higher concentration than inside the cell (cell shrinks and shrivels)
hypotonic = the inside of the cell has a higher concentration than the outside of the cell (cell grows and can burst)
4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport:
- requires NO energy
- Movement from areas of HIGH to LOW concentration
- must be small/non-polar/ hydrophobic
simple diffusion
4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport:
- requires NO energy
- movement from areas of HIGH to LOW. concentration
- requires a membrane protein
facilitated diffusion
4.5) Three Modes of Transmembrane Transport:
- requires cellular energy (ATP/redox).
- movement AGAINST concentration gradient from areas of LOW to areas of HIGH concentration
- requires a protein called a “pump”
active transport
4.5)
