Final Exam Flashcards
Levels of Analysis of Macromolecules
-1 Primary Structure - The sequence of amino acids that forms the polypeptide chain
-2 Secondary Structure - The primary chain forms spirals (a-helices) and sheets (B-sheets)
-3 Tertiary Structure - a-helices and/or B-sheets are folded to form a compact globular molecule
-4 Quaternary Structure - Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a functional protein
Types of Endocytosis
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis - Clathrin proteins pull the PLB into the cell, trapping materials within a vesicle
Phagocytosis - The cell is bringing solid material into the cell. Called “cell eating”
Pinocytosis - The cell is bringing a solution into the cell. Called “cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis - The cell is bringing one solute into the cell preferentially while others are trapped unintentionally. Occurs via the assistance of membrane receptors. Called “cell fishing”
The Cell Membrane: Associated Structures
Phospholipid Molecules - Molecules with hydrophilic “heads” and hydrophobic “tails”
Cholesterol - Molecules that help with PLB stability
Proteins - Groups of amino acids that help with the movement of molecules into, out of, or through the PLB
Extracellular Fluid - A watery environment outside the cell
Cytoplasm - A watery environment within the cell
Cytoskeletal Elements - Structures that perform a variety of different actions within a cell
Glycocalyx - A molecule in the PLB whose functions are used for protection, immunity to infection, defense against cancer, transplant compatibility, cell adhesion, fertilization, and embryonic development
Cell Junctions
Tight Junction - The simplest junctions, impermeable, similar to a spot weld, with little to no movement
Desmosomes - A more complex junction where anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together to reduce tension. Provides some flexibility
- Desmosomes use glycoproteins called cadherins as well as internal plaque proteins
Gap Junction - The most complex junction. Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for purposes of communication.
- Gap junctions use clusters of connexons, which are integral proteins that allow the passage of small molecules and ions between cells
Integral Proteins
Transport - A protein that provides a hydrophilic channel across the PLB that is selective for a particular solute
Receptor - A protein that may have a binding site with a specific shape for a chemical messenger, such as a hormone
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) - Elements of the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix anchored to membrane proteins that help to maintain cell shape
Enzyme - A protein built into the membrane with its active site exposed. In some cases, multiple enzymes act as a team to catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.
Channel - A tube-like protein that allows materials to flow freely across the PLB
Gated Channel - Similar to a channel protein, however, one side is closed off and opens at certain times
Cell-identity Marker - Glycoprotein ID tags that are specifically recognized by other cells
Cell adhesion - Membrane proteins that can hook together with other proteins to form intercellular junctions
Types of Facilitated Diffusion
Carrier-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a protein that is specific for one chemical
Channel-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a channel protein. Only specific in terms of size and charge.
Types of Endocytosis
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis - Clathrin proteins pull the PLB into the cell, trapping materials within a vesicle
Phagocytosis - The cell is bringing solid material into the cell. Called “cell eating”
Pinocytosis - The cell is bringing a solution into the cell. Called “cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis - The cell is bringing one solute into the cell preferentially while others are trapped unintentionally. Occurs via the assistance of membrane receptors. Called “cell fishing”
Exocytosis
Getting rid of material after use in a vesicle. The vesicle merges w/ the PLB to release its contents to the exterior
The vesicle connects to the PLB by twisting together PLB snare and Vesicle snare proteins.
If a solution has a greater number of H+ ions than OH- ions, it is:
Acidic
If a solution has a greater number of OH- ions than H+ ions, it is:
Basic
Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum Corneum - Thick layer of skin, mostly stratified squamous cells, these cells are DEAD and act like roofing material/protection
Stratum Granulosum - A layer containing keratin granules. In this layer, some cells are alive, while many begin to die off.
Stratum Spinosum - A layer containing bundles of pre-keratin and Langerhans’ cells (immune cells)
Stratum Basale - The deepest, most active, growing layer of skin where cells divide via mitosis. The cells begin to migrate outward. Comprised mostly of simple cuboidal cells.
Cells within the Stratum Basale
Melanocytes - pigment-producing cells that darken the skin
Melanin granules - cytoplasmic structure that carries melanocytes outward
Merkel cells - sensory cells that can elicit pain signals
Structures within the Dermis
Hair Follicle - Produces a hair shaft, made of multiple layers of cells
Pacinian Corpuscle - Large, round structures located deep in the dermis, used to sense deep touch
Meissner’s Corpuscle - Small, bulbous structures located in the dermis just below the stratum basale, used to sense light touch
Free Nerve Endings - Structures that run through the dermis and partially into the epidermis, used to sense temperature and touch
Merkel Discs - Nerve endings that connect to the Merkel Cells within the stratum basale
Sebaceous Glands - Release oil (sebum) that is used by hair shafts to give hair a smooth texture
Eccrine Sweat Glands - Release sweat
Arrector Pili Muscles - allow hair to “stand” and for the skin to exhibit goosebumps
Blood Vessels - The dermis is highly vascularized
Hair Follicle Shape
Round Shaft - Straight Hair
Oval Shaft - Wavy Hair
Ribbon (Elongated Oval) Shaft - Curly Hair
Layers of the Hair Follicle Wall
Connective Tissue Root Sheath - Outermost
Glassy Membrane - Deep to the CTRS
External Epithelial Root Sheath - Deep to the Glassy Membrane
Internal Epithelial Root Sheath - Innermost
Hair Color in Relation to Pigment and Mineral Levels
Black Hair - High Pigmentation - Low to No Minerals
Brown Hair - High Pigmentation - High Minerals
Blonde Hair - Low to No Pigmentation - High Minerals
White - Low to No Pigmentation - Low to No Minerals
Melanin Pigment Types
Eumelanin - Brownish/black in color. The primary pigment type produced
Pheomelanin - Pink or red depending on concentration. Commonly found in lips, nipples, glands of the penis and vagina, etc.
Trichochromes - Pigments produced without significant color, often associated with red hair
Types of Bones
Long - One dimension is longer than the others
Flat - They develop between 2 or more membranes
Irregular - Bones that fit no other category, no specific shape or structure can help identify them as short, long, or flat
Short - Roughly the same size in all dimensions, box-like
Sesamoid - smooth & round like a sesame seed
Types of Bone Cells
Osteogenic Cell - A stem cell that can develop into a variety of specialized cells (many listed below)
Osteoblast - The cells that build bone tissue by embedding calcium into the bone tissue, responsible for cell growth
Osteocyte - The cells that comprise bones, mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix
Osteoclast - Cells that leech calcium from bone tissues, bone-resorbing cells, the opposite of osteoblasts. These cells help to provide calcium to the rest of the body
Bone Diseases
Osteoporosis - Increased bone weakness, bones become porous and brittle, increased risk of fracture/breaking. Occurs more frequently in elderly women and women who have had many children.
Osteogenesis - A defect in collagen deposition that renders bones extremely brittle, resulting in fractures present at birth or occurring with extraordinary frequency during childhood. Can cause tooth deformity and hearing loss
Achondroplasia - A disease that causes dwarfism via bones that are non-responsive to GH
Hypothyroid Activity - Low thyroid activity causes dwarfism due to decreased & irregular growth rates
Pituitary Gigantism - The pituitary gland produces GH in excess, causing bones to grow abnormally large
Acromegaly - GH is produced at a constant rate throughout puberty and adulthood instead of tapering off, causing facial distortion and irregular bone growth post-ossification
Types of Joints
Fibrous Joints - Created via fibrous connective tissues that allow virtually no movement
Cartilaginous Joints - Created via cartilages that allow small amounts of movement
Synovial Joints - Highly movable joints comprised of bones with a fibrous joint capsule surrounding it that allows a far greater ROM between the two articulating bones
Types of Fibrous Joints
Cranial Sutures - “lines” of fibrous connective tissue that hold the different cranial bones in place. Fibrous tissue is very short in length.
Syndesmosis - A joint held together by a ligament. Fibrous tissue is longer than it is in sutures
Gomphosis - “Peg in socket” type of fibrous joint. Short fibrous tissues hold the “peg” in the “socket.”
Types of Sutures
Serrate Suture - Zig-Zag ridges that fit together similar to a dovetail joint in woodworking
Lap suture - Diagonal ridges that fit together similar to a miter joint in woodworking
Plane suture - Straight/Flat ridges that fit together similar to a butt joint in woodworking
Where are Syndesmosis Joints found?
The tibiofibular joints are examples of syndesmosis joints
What is an example of a Gomphosis Joint?
A tooth in its socket is an example of a gomphosis joint
Types of Cartilaginous Joints
Synchondroses - Bones united by hyaline cartilage
Symphyses - Bones united by fibrocartilage
What is an example of a synchondrosis joint?
The joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum
What are the structures that make up a Synovial Joint?
Articular Cartilage - A layer of protective tissue that covers the articulating surfaces
Synovial Membrane - A membrane between bones that produces synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant. The membrane is very delicate
Fibrous Capsule - A sheet of fibrous tissue that surrounds the synovial membrane and provides support
Ligamental Tissue - Connective tissue that holds bones together and limits the amount of movement they can display
Bursae - fluid-filled sacs that act as cushions between articulating bones and provide further support in the ROM of a joint
Categories of Synovial Joints
Plane Joint - Limited 2D movement
Hinge Joint - Rotational 2D movement
Pivot Joint - Specialized 2D movement
Condyloid Joint - Limited 3D rotational movement
Saddle Joint - Specialized 3D movement
Ball & Socket Joint - Wide-ranging 3D movement
Plane Joint Examples
Carpals & Tarsals
Hinge Joint Examples
Elbows & Knees
Pivot Joint Example
Radioulnar Joint
Condyloid Joint Examples
Between metacarpals & phalanges AND between metatarsals & phalanges
Saddle Joint Example
Between the carpals & metacarpals of the thumbs
Ball & Socket Joint Examples
The femur in the acetabulum & the Humerus in the Glenoid Cavity
Arthritis
Rheumatoid Arthritis - Inflammation & joint degeneration
Osteoarthritis - Wear & tear failure of joints
Joint Diseases
Gout - uric acid crystals accumulate in the joints and irritate articular cartilage & the synovial membrane
Synovitis - joint capsule inflammation, common complication of a sprain
Tendinitis - A form of bursitis where the tendon sheath is inflamed
Examples of each muscle type
Fusiform - Biceps Brachii
Parallel - Rectus Abdominis
Triangular - Pectoralis Major
Unipennate - Palmaris Interosseous
Bipennate - Rectus Femoris
Multipennate - Deltoid
Circular - Orbicularis Oculi
Organization of muscle fibers (different types of muscles)
Fusiform - Spindle-shaped muscles that are tapering on both ends
Parallel - Characterized by fascicles that run parallel to one another. The contraction of a parallel muscle is similar to the contraction of a single muscle fiber
Triangular - A flat muscle with a broadband origin and a narrow point of insertion. Shaped like a paper fan
Unipennate - A pennate muscle in which the muscle fibers or fascicles are all on one side of the tendon
Bipennate - A pennate muscle with two rows of muscle fibers facing in opposite diagonal directions with a central tendon, similar to a feather. Allows for lots of power but less ROM
Multipennate - A pennate muscle with fibers arranged at many different angles in relation to the axis of force generation
Circular - Muscles that typically encircle an orifice or object
How does Ca2+ affect muscle fibers & contraction?
Ca2+ binds to the Troponin Complex on the actin filament, causing it to move out of the way so that the Head of the myosin fiber can latch onto the myosin binding site of the actin bead
Types of Contraction
Isotonic Contraction - The muscle visibly changes in length while producing tension
Isometric Contraction - The muscle does not visibly change in length, though tension is still produced. This is due to the load being too heavy for the muscle to move.
Slow Oxidative Muscle Fibers
Also called Slow Twitch fibers, they contain a high number of mitochondria, thus they can continuously generate ATP energy for long-term use.
Slow Oxidative Fibers tend to function aerobically and are fatigue resistant
Mitochondria are large and abundant
Capillaries are also abundant
Red in color
Chicken legs are “dark meat” because they are SO muscles used for everyday walking or running.
Fast Glycolytic Muscle Fibers
Also called Fast Twitch fibers, they have fewer and smaller mitochondria. They do, however, store high-energy molecules called glycogen, which can be quickly converted to ATP for use in contraction.
Fast Glycolytic Fibers tend to function anaerobically and fatigue easily once glycogen stores are depleted. FG fibers are faster due to the fact that glycogen can be converted into ATP (glycolysis) faster than mitochondria can produce ATP.
Mitochondria are smaller and less abundant
Capillaries are not abundant
White/Pale in color
Chicken breasts are “light meat” because chickens only flap their wings occasionally and for a short duration (until glycogen is depleted)
What determines how much power a muscle has?
Muscle size & the number of muscle fibers
What is the primary neurotransmitter for NMJs formed with skeletal muscle
Acetylcholine
How does Ca2+ affect muscle fibers & contraction?
Ca2+ binds to the Troponin Complex on the actin filament, causing it to move out of the way so that the Head of the myosin fiber can latch onto the myosin binding site of the actin bead
Levels of NMJ muscle stimulation
Low Stimulus Frequency - Produces a muscle twitch, allowing the muscle to fully relax before stimulating again
Muscle Summation (Incomplete Tetanus) - There is not enough time between stimuli for the muscle to fully relax, resulting in a wavering, but ever rising, amount of muscle tension
Tetanus (Complete/Fused Tetanus) - Stimuli are received so rapidly that the muscle reaches a point of maximal contraction and will stay “locked” in peak contraction until stimuli are no longer present at the NMJ
How to increase Contractile Force (strength)?
- Use larger muscle groups because more fibers = more strength generated
- Use weight training to increase the size of the muscle fibers because larger fibers = more strength
- Use tetanic contractions (hold muscles in stationary maximal tetany) via yoga or other means
- Use stretching exercises before an activity to give you greater strength during the activity because stretching helps muscles attain their greatest possible lengths.
How to increase Contractile Velocity (speed)?
- Use lower-weight, repetitive load-bearing training to facilitate contractile velocity
- Exercises used for increasing contractile velocity will target fast glycolytic (fatigable) fibers
How to increase Contractile Duration?
- Use lower-weight, repetitive load-bearing training to facilitate contractile duration
Exercises used for increasing contractile duration will target slow oxidative (fatigue-resistant) fibers
Glial cells of the Nervous System
Astrocytes - Cells that help to connect neurons and blood vessels together. They are star-shaped cells that allow nourishment and waste products to move into or out of the neuron.
Microglial Cells - Part of the body’s immune response, they monitor for and protect organs (mostly the brain) from diseases and infections
Ependymal Cells - Cells that produce Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF). They are found in the ventricles of the brain and fill the ventricles with CSF. These cells have cilia on their surfaces to help move CSF around the structures of the CNS.
Oligodendrocytes - Cells that produce myelin and are found in the CNS
Schwann Cells - Cells that produce myelin and are found in the PNS
Chemically Gated Channels
Receptor Proteins in the PLB of a cell open or close in the presence of a neurotransmitter chemical signal being bound to the protein.
Voltage-Gated Channels
Transmembrane Proteins in the cell membrane of a neuron that react (open & close) in response to the membrane potential across the PLB. When the outside of a cell is net positive and the inside is net negative, the protein channel is closed. When the charges flip, the protein channel opens and allows molecules to pass through.
What is the role of the Sodium-Potassium Pump in neurons?
The sodium-potassium pump uses active transport to expel excess sodium and bring in potassium that has leaked out. It does this to maintain a neuron’s ion ratios
Depolarization
The term used when the cell membrane potential becomes less electronegative (goes toward zero)
Hyperpolarization
The term used when the cell membrane potential becomes more electronegative (goes away from zero)
What are the steps of action potential generation?
- Resting State: The state of a neuron when it is not carrying a message. Both sodium and potassium voltage-gated channels are closed
- Depolarizing Phase: As the stimulus passes through the neuron, membrane potential quickly rises to its action potential (the peak on the graph). The sodium channels open.
- Repolarizing Phase: The stimulus has passed and action potential begins to decline. The sodium channels begin to close and the potassium channels open, allowing K+ to flood out, changing membrane potential.
- Hyperpolarization: The neuron is resetting. The K+ channels remain open so that the cell can reach equilibrium. The Na+ channels are resetting to start the cycle over.
How does voltage/stimulus affect action potential?
The higher the voltage, stronger action potentials are generated at a more frequent rate.
No action potentials are generated if the threshold voltage is not reached
What are the three meninges of the spinal cord?
Outermost
- Dura Mater
- Arachnoid Mater
- Pia Mater
Innermost
Paraplegia
Paraplegia is a spinal cord injury that results in the loss of the ability to control the legs. Any severing of the spinal cord below T2 will result in paraplegia, however, the lower the severance is, the less the total deficit will be.
Quadriplegia
Quadriplegia is a spinal cord injury that results in the loss of ability to control both the arms and legs of the body. Any severing of the spinal cord above the T1 region will result in quadriplegia. The higher the point of severance, the more severe the loss of mobility will be.
What are the major endocrine glands?
Pineal Gland
Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus
Thyroid Gland
Parathyroid Glands
Thymus
Pancreas
Adrenal Glands
Gonads (Ovary & Testis)
Steroidal Hormones
Have a backbone of CHOLESTEROL
Direct Stimulation
- Androgens
- Estrogens
- Progestins
- Aldosterone
- Cortisols
Nonsteroidal Hormones
Indirect Stimulation through receptors & secondary messengers
- Insulin
- Growth Hormones
- Prolactin
- Follicle-stimulating Hormones
- Luteinizing Hormone
- Adrenocorticotropic Hormone
What hormones are secreted by the Pituitary Gland?
- Anterior - Growth Hormone (GH), Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH), Prolactin (PRL), & Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
- Pars Intermedia - Melanochore Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
- Posterior - Oxytocin & Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Types of Endocrine Gland Stimuli
Humoral - A chemical in the blood is monitored by an endocrine gland
Neural - A direct connection between a gland and the CNS/PNS
Hormonal/Endocrine - A hormonal signal stimulates a gland into activity
Hormones released by the Hypothalamus
- Releasing
Thyrotropin-releasing Hormone (TRH)
Corticotropin-releasing Hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropin-releasing Hormone (GnRH)
Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)
- Inhibiting
Thyrotropin-inhibiting Hormone (TIH)
Corticotropin-inhibiting Hormone (CIH)
Gonadotropin-inhibiting Hormone (GnIH)
Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
Hormones released by the Pineal Gland
Melatonin - Regulates sleep/wake cycles
Hormones released by the Thymus
Thymosin - Stimulates production of T-cells that are important for immune responses
Hormones released by the Thyroid Gland
Calcitonin - Causes Ca2+ to be embedded into the bones
Triiodothyronine (T3) & Thyroxine (T4) - Elevate Metabolic Rate
What happens with too much or too little T3 & T4
Hyperthyroidism - T3 & T4 are excessively secreted & individuals feel hot or flush, more inclined to be anorexic, & display hyperactivity
Hypothyroidism - T3 & T4 levels are insufficient, individuals often feel cold, more inclined to become obese, & report feeling “sluggish”
Hormones released by the parathyroid glands
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) - stimulates osteoclasts to leech Ca2+ out of bones
Hormones released by the Adrenal Glands
Short-Term Stress
- Catecholamines (Epinephrine & Norepinephrine)
Long-Term Stress
- Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
- Glucocorticoids (cortisols)
The adrenal glands also release small amounts of androgens, estrogens, & progestins
What is the body’s response to Short-Term Stress, epinephrine, & norepinephrine
- Increased HR & BP
- The liver converts glycogen to glucose & releases glucose to the blood
- Dilation of bronchioles
- Increased blood flow to skeletal muscles & decreased blood flow to the abdominal/pelvic region
What is the body’s response to Mineralocorticoids (long-term stress)
- Retention of Na+ & water by the kidneys
- Increased blood volume & pressure
What is the body’s response to Glucocorticoids (long-term stress)
- Proteins & fats are converted to glucose or broken down for energy
- Increased blood glucose
- Suppression of the immune system
Hormones produced by the Pancreas
Insulin - Stimulates the liver to capture glucose when blood glucose levels rise
Glucagon - Stimulates glycogen breakdown when blood glucose levels decrease
Hormones produced by the Ovaries
Estrogens (Estradiol) & Progestins (Progesterone)
Hormones produced by the Testes
Androgens (Testosterone & Dihydrotestosterone)
Endocrine Disorders
Acromegaly - Too much GH is secreted in adulthood, causing bones to become dense & thick
Endemic Goiter - The inflammation of the thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency, causes the inability to produce T3 & T4
Cushing’s Syndrome - A series of symptoms stemming from prolonged hyper exposure to cortisol. May cause high BP, abnormal obesity with thin extremities, reddish stretch marks, a round red face, a lump of fat between shoulders, weakness, acne, & fragile skin
Adrenogenital Syndrome (AGS) or Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) - Individuals are born with ambiguous genitalia. Caused by high androgen conc. for in-utero females. Males are typically diagnosed after the onset of puberty
Addison Disease - Hypoglycemia, hypotension, weight loss, weakness, & darkening of the skin caused by hyposecretion of adrenal glucocorticoids & mineralocorticoids (long-term stress hormones)
Hyperinsulinism - Hypoglycemia, weakness, hunger, & insulin shock caused by excess insulin via islet hypersecretion
Myxedema - Low metabolic rate, sluggishness or sleepiness, weight gain, constipation, dry skin/hair, abnormal sensitivity to cold, hypertension, & tissue swelling caused by prolonged adult hypothyroidism
Toxic Goiter (Graves Disease) - elevated metabolic & heart rates, nervousness, sleeplessness, weight loss, heat sensitivity, & bulging eyes caused by thyroid hypertrophy & hypersecretion
How does the Hypothalamus communicate with the Anterior Pituitary?
The Hypophyseal Portal System - A liquid pituitary system
How does the Hypothalamus communicate with the Posterior Pituitary?
The Hypothalamic Hypophyseal Tract - A series of nerves from the Hypothalamus that innervate & communicate with the posterior pituitary
