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Biol 232 > Exam 2: Ch. 6-9 > Flashcards

Exam 2: Ch. 6-9 Flashcards

1
Q

John F. Burke

Ioannis V. Yannas

A

Two engineers who worked together to pioneer the first use of artificial skin in surgery

Their work helps many burn victims

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2
Q

Epidermis

A

The outermost layer of the skin

Doesn’t have its own direct blood supply

Receives nutrients from blood vessels in the outermost portion of the dermis

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3
Q

Layers of the Epidermis

A

Stratum Corneum - Thick layer of skin, mostly stratified squamous cells, these cells are DEAD and act like roofing material/protection

Stratum Granulosum - A layer containing keratin granules. In this layer, some cells are alive, while many begin to die off.

Stratum Spinosum - A layer containing bundles of pre-keratin and Langerhans’ cells (immune cells)

Stratum Basale - The deepest, most active, growing layer of skin where cells divide via mitosis. The cells begin to migrate outward. Comprised mostly of simple cuboidal cells.

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4
Q

Structures within the Epidermis

A

Gland Pores & Tracts

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5
Q

Cells within the Stratum Basale

A

Melanocytes - pigment-producing cells that darken the skin
Melanin granules - cytoplasmic structure that carries melanocytes outward
Merkel cells - sensory cells that can elicit pain signals

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6
Q

Vellum Hair

A

Fine, translucent hair that is located all across the human body

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7
Q

Dermis

A

The middle layer of the skin houses accessory structures such as glands, muscles, nerves, and vascular tissue.

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8
Q

Layers of the Dermis

A

Papillary Layer - Spongy, flexible layer of the dermis
Reticular Layer - Rigid, fibrous layer of dermal tissue

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9
Q

Structures within the Dermis

A

Hair Follicle - Produces a hair shaft, made of multiple layers of cells

Pacinian Corpuscle - Large, round structures located deep in the dermis, used to sense deep touch

Meissner’s Corpuscle - Small, bulbous structures located in the dermis just below the stratum basale, used to sense light touch

Free Nerve Endings - Structures that run through the dermis and partially into the epidermis, used to sense temperature and touch

Merkel Discs - Nerve endings that connect to the Merkel Cells within the stratum basale

Sebaceous Glands - Release oil (sebum) that is used by hair shafts to give hair a smooth texture

Eccrine Sweat Glands - Release sweat

Arrector Pili Muscles - allow hair to “stand” and for the skin to exhibit goosebumps

Blood Vessels - The dermis is highly vascularized

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10
Q

Hypodermis

A

Also called the subcutaneous layer, the hypodermis is the deepest layer of skin. This layer has the most variation in levels of thickness. This layer is primarily composed of adipose or areolar tissue, both of which function as shock absorbers and as insulators.

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11
Q

Friction Ridges

A

Skin with a higher density which is mostly found in places of high contact such as the fingers, face, armpits, and joints

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12
Q

Hair Follicle Shape

A

Round Shaft - Straight Hair
Oval Shaft - Wavy Hair
Ribbon (Elongated Oval) Shaft - Curly Hair

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13
Q

Layers of the Hair Follicle Wall

A

Connective Tissue Root Sheath - Outermost
Glassy Membrane - Deep to the CTRS
External Epithelial Root Sheath - Deep to the Glassy Membrane
Internal Epithelial Root Sheath - Innermost

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14
Q

Layers of Hair

A

Cuticle - The outermost layer of the hair
Cortex - The middle layer of the hair
Medulla - The inside layer of the hair

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15
Q

Hair Color in relation to Pigment and Mineral levels

A

Black Hair - High Pigmentation - Low to No Minerals

Brown Hair - High Pigmentation - High Minerals

Blonde Hair - Low to No Pigmentation - High Minerals

White - Low to No Pigmentation - Low to No Minerals

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16
Q

Red Hair

A

An abundance of the pigment pheomelanin as well as mineral deposition of specifically iron both contribute to red hair.

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17
Q

Gray Hair

A

Individuals with gray hair have decreased melanin production

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18
Q

Melanin Pigment Types

A

Eumelanin - Brownish/black in color. The primary pigment type produced

Pheomelanin - Pink or red depending on concentration. Commonly found in lips, nipples, glands of the penis and vagina, etc.

Trichochromes - Pigments produced without significant color, often associated with red hair

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19
Q

Hair Growth Phases

A

Anagen (early & mature) - The growth phase, lasts 6-8 years

Catagen - Degenerative phase, lasts 2-3 weeks

Telogen - Resting phase, lasts 1-3 months

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20
Q

Key Anatomical Structures of the Nail

A

Lunule - The active, growing region of the nailbed. Lighter in color and crescent moon shaped.

Body of the Nail - The main structure of the nail

Nail Bed - Highly vascularized, pink-colored structure underneath the nail body

Free edge of the nail - The area humans use when “probing” the environment

Eponychium - Referred to as the cuticle, a thin layer of skin between the nail and the rest of the skin on the proximal end

Hyponychium - A thin layer of skin underneath the nail on the free edge (distal) end

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21
Q

Albinism

A

A condition in which an individual does not produce melanin, thus having a lack of skin and hair pigmentation. This condition also impacts eye development.

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22
Q

Proposed Factors in Skin Color Variation

A

Vitamin D Needs - high levels of melanin are common in countries close to the equator because those countries receive higher UV exposure, thus generating less Vitamin D from within the body. Near the poles, however, individuals receive less UV exposure, which in turn causes lower melanin levels so that Vitamin D synthesis can occur from what little sun exposure there is.

UV Exposure Risks - UV penetrance is HIGHER at the equator and LOWER when closer to the poles

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23
Q

The Rule of Nines

A

A tool clinicians use to estimate skin surface areas in diagnoses. It is commonly used for estimating burn injuries

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24
Q

Levels of Burns

A

1st Degree Burn - Burned skin region is shallow, usually limited to the epidermis

2nd Degree Burn - Burned skin region is deeper and results in blistering, burn penetrates to the dermis but not all the way through

3rd Degree Burn - Burned skin region is through all layers of the skin, deeper tissue is exposed

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25
Q

Sudoriferous Glands

A

Sweat Glands

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26
Q

Ceruminous Glands

A

Glands of the ear canal that contribute to the production of cerumen (earwax)

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27
Q

Mammary Glands

A

Milk-producing glands located in the breasts

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28
Q

Disorders of the Integumentary System

A

Acne - Inflammation of the sebaceous glands, the follicle becomes blocked

Dermatitis - Any inflammation of the skin, typically marked by redness and itchiness

Eczema - Itchy, red, “weeping” skin lesions caused by an allergy

Psoriasis - Recurring, reddened plaques covered with silvery scale

Rosacea - A red, rash-like area, often in the nose or cheeks, marked by a fine network of blood vessels

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29
Q

Bernard Siegfried Albinus

A

Famous for his drawings in “Tables of the Skeleton and Muscles of the Human Body”
Both a scientist & an artist

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30
Q

Axial Skeleton

A

The skull, vertebral column, and the thoracic cage

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31
Q

Appendicular Skeleton

A

Bones of the limbs, pectoral & pelvic girdles, hands, & feet

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32
Q

Types of Cartilages

A

Hyaline - Found in the costal cartilages of the ribs, elbow joints, wrist joints, hips, knees, ankles, and the larynx via thyroid and cricoid cartilages

Elastic - Found in the external ears, the nose, and the epiglottis

Fibrocartilage - Found in the intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis

33
Q

Types of Bones

A

Long - One dimension is longer than the others
Flat - They develop between 2 or more membranes
Irregular - Bones that fit no other category, no specific shape or structure can help identify them as short, long, or flat
Short - Roughly the same size in all dimensions, box-like
Sesamoid - smooth & round like a sesame seed

34
Q

Long Bone Examples

A

Fibula Tibia, Ulna, Radius, Phalanges

35
Q

Short Bone Examples

A

Carpals, Tarsals, Ankle Bones (Talus)

36
Q

Flat Bone Examples

A

Sternal Bones & Cranial Bones

37
Q

Irregular Bones Example

A

Vertebrae

38
Q

Sesamoid Bones Example

A

Patella

39
Q

Structural Design of Long Bones

A

Epiphysis - Knob-like ends of typical long bones, composed of both compact and spongy bone tissues

Diaphysis - The long, shaft-like portion of the long bone, composed of primarily compact bone tissue

Epiphyseal Discs/Lines/Cartilages - The “line” between Epiphyses and Diaphyses, composed of cartilage, becomes ossified bone after puberty

Red Bone Marrow - Site of production of (red & white) blood cells and platelets, resides in the cavities of spongy tissue.

Yellow Bone Marrow - Helps recruit blood cell “building blocks” into the bone

40
Q

Structural Design of Flat Bone Tissue

A

Two layers of compact bone with spongy bone “sandwiched” between the two compact layers

41
Q

Types of Bone Tissue

A

Compact - Dense, solid, strong, rigid

Spongy - Many “holes” or spaces, called trabeculae, throughout, weaker

42
Q

Functions of the Skeletal System

A

Framework to encase, hang, & connect parts of the body
Blood cell production
Mineral storage

43
Q

Types of Bone Cells

A

Osteogenic Cell - A stem cell that can develop into a variety of specialized cells (many listed below)

Osteoblast - The cells that build bone tissue by embedding calcium into the bone tissue, responsible for cell growth

Osteocyte - The cells that comprise bones, mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix

Osteoclast - Cells that leech calcium from bone tissues, bone-resorbing cells, the opposite of osteoblasts. These cells help to provide calcium to the rest of the body

44
Q

Growth & Sex Hormone Levels

A

GH levels are high prenatally and remain high until the onset of puberty when they begin to slowly decline.
SH levels spike shortly prenatally, then return to 0 until the onset of puberty, when they then begin to rise slowly. They remain high throughout adulthood.

45
Q

Cartilage Injuries

A

Torn cartilages often take 5+ months to repair themselves because they have no direct blood supply

Over-working bones in childhood/teenage years can cause the epiphyseal plates to ossify early and stunt growth.

46
Q

Cholecalciferol

A

An important coenzyme that helps to maintain strong bone health and density

47
Q

What happens when Ca2+ (Calcium) levels in the blood fall?

A

Parathyroid (PTH) levels rise, stimulating osteoclasts to leech calcium from the bones

48
Q

What happens when Ca2+ levels rise?

A

The thyroid gland undergoes a process called calcitonin, which stimulates calcium salt deposits in the bones

49
Q

Critical Coenzymes in Bone Health

A

Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) - Promotes bone health

Calcitriol - impacts deposition into bones, resorption, kidney function, etc.

Calcitonin - Promotes mineralization and lowers Ca2+ levels in the blood.

50
Q

Bone Diseases

A

Osteoporosis - Increased bone weakness, bones become porous and brittle, increased risk of fracture/breaking. Occurs more frequently in elderly women and women who have had many children.

Osteogenesis - A defect in collagen deposition that renders bones extremely brittle, resulting in fractures present at birth or occurring with extraordinary frequency during childhood. Can cause tooth deformity and hearing loss

Achondroplasia - A disease that causes dwarfism via bones that are non-responsive to GH

Hypothyroid Activity - Low thyroid activity causes dwarfism due to decreased & irregular growth rates

Pituitary Gigantism - The pituitary gland produces GH in excess, causing bones to grow abnormally large

Acromegaly - GH is produced at a constant rate throughout puberty and adulthood instead of tapering off, causing facial distortion and irregular bone growth post-ossification

51
Q

Chelation Therapy

A

Intravenous administration of chemicals designed to absorb toxic substances that have accumulated in the body. Used frequently for the treatment of exposure to heavy metals such as lead, mercury, cobalt, etc.

52
Q

Steps in Fracture Healing

A

When a fracture initially occurs, a HEMATOMA (pool/clot of blood) forms

Formation of the FIBROCARTILAGINOUS CALLUS (mass of repair tissue containing collagen fibers and cartilage)

BONY CALLUS forms (spongy bone from the ossification of the fibrocartilaginous callus)

BONE REMODELING occurs (the fracture is healed)

53
Q

Common Types of Fractures

A

Comminuted - Bone fragments in three or more pieces, common in aged people with brittle bones

Compression - The bone is crushed, common in porous bones (osteoporosis)

Spiral - Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone, common in sports

Epiphyseal - The epiphysis of the bone separates from the diaphysis along the epiphyseal plate, occurs where cartilage cells are dying and calcification is occurring

Depressed - Broken bone portion is pressed inward, occurs in the skull

Greenstick - Bone breaks incompletely, similar to how a green twig would break, common in children whose bones have more organic matrix and are more flexible

54
Q

Sinuses

A

Openings in the body that are lined with mucous membranes. They produce moisture & warmth

55
Q

Unique Features of the Pelvic Girdle

A

Sexually Dimorphic (different in men vs. women)

Male openings through the coxal bones are smaller, Female openings are larger for childbirth.

Female pelvic girdle structure causes more wear & tear due to the position of the legs being slightly anterior to the vertebral column

56
Q

Foot Arches

A

Medial Longitudinal - Runs heel to toe along the middle of the foot

Lateral Longitudinal - Heel to toe along the lateral/sides of the feet

Transverse - Runs from one side of the foot to the other

57
Q

Cleft Palette

A

One part of a child’s maxilla doesn’t develop, resulting in abnormal facial structures

58
Q

Sir John Charnley

A

Surgeon who pioneered the use of artificial joints in the early 1960s

59
Q

Types of Joints

A

Fibrous Joints - Created via fibrous connective tissues that allow virtually no movement

Cartilaginous Joints - Created via cartilages that allow small amounts of movement

Synovial Joints - Highly movable joints comprised of bones with a fibrous joint capsule surrounding it that allows a far greater ROM between the two articulating bones

60
Q

Types of Fibrous Joints

A

Cranial Sutures - “lines” of fibrous connective tissue that hold the different cranial bones in place. Fibrous tissue is very short in length.

Syndesmosis - A joint held together by a ligament. Fibrous tissue is longer than it is in sutures

Gomphosis - “Peg in socket” type of fibrous joint. Short fibrous tissues hold the “peg” in the “socket.”

61
Q

Types of Sutures

A

Serrate Suture - Zig-Zag ridges that fit together similar to a dovetail joint in woodworking

Lap suture - Diagonal ridges that fit together similar to a miter joint in woodworking

Plane suture - Straight/Flat ridges that fit together similar to a butt joint in woodworking

62
Q

Where are Syndesmosis Joints found?

A

The tibiofibular joints are examples of syndesmosis joints

63
Q

What is an example of a Gomphosis Joint?

A

A tooth in its socket is an example of a gomphosis joint

64
Q

Types of Cartilaginous Joints

A

Synchondroses - Bones united by hyaline cartilage

Symphyses - Bones united by fibrocartilage

65
Q

What is an example of a synchondrosis joint?

A

The joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum

66
Q

What is an example of a symphysis?

A

The pubic symphysis or the mandibular symphysis

67
Q

What are the structures that make up a Synovial Joint?

A

Articular Cartilage - A layer of protective tissue that covers the articulating surfaces

Synovial Membrane - A membrane between bones that produces synovial fluid that acts as a lubricant. The membrane is very delicate

Fibrous Capsule - A sheet of fibrous tissue that surrounds the synovial membrane and provides support

Ligamental Tissue - Connective tissue that holds bones together and limits the amount of movement they can display

Bursae - fluid-filled sacs that act as cushions between articulating bones and provide further support in the ROM of a joint.

68
Q

Categories of Synovial Joints

A

Plane Joint - Limited 2D movement

Hinge Joint - Rotational 2D movement

Pivot Joint - Specialized 2D movement

Condyloid Joint - Limited 3D rotational movement

Saddle Joint - Specialized 3D movement

Ball & Socket Joint - Wide-ranging 3D movement

69
Q

Where are Plane Joints found?

A

Carpals & Tarsals

70
Q

Where are Hinge Joints found?

A

Elbows & Knees

71
Q

Where are Pivot Joints found?

A

Radioulnar Joint

72
Q

Where are Condyloid Joints found?

A

Between metacarpals & phalanges AND between metatarsals & phalanges

73
Q

Where are Saddle Joints found?

A

ONLY between the carpals & metacarpals of our thumbs

74
Q

Where are Ball & Socket Joints found?

A

The femur in the acetabulum of the coxal bone & the humerus in the glenoid cavity of the scapula

75
Q

What is the Temporomandibular Joint?

A

The joint between the mandibular condyle and the cranium.

Side-to-side movement of this joint can cause inflammation and potential joint failure. This kind of movement is commonly the cause of TMJ disorder

76
Q

Arthritis

A

Rheumatoid Arthritis - Chronic inflammation and joint degeneration that is the result of an autoimmune response

Osteoarthritis - Wear failure of joints, the articulating surfaces simply wear out

77
Q

Other Joint Disorders

A

Gout - A disease in which uric acid crystals accumulate in the joints and irritate the articular cartilage and synovial membrane

Synovitis - Inflammation of a joint capsule, often a complication of a sprain

Tendinitis - A form of bursitis in which a tendon sheath is inflamed

78
Q

Kenneth Gustke

A

Developed/designed many artificial joints

Biol 232 (6 decks)

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