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Biol 232 > Exam 1: Ch. 1-5 > Flashcards

Exam 1: Ch. 1-5 Flashcards

1
Q

Louis Pasteur

A

-Microbiologist
-Disproved “Spontaneous Generation”
-Pasteurization - minimizing foodborne illness via food treatments
-Vaccine for rabies

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2
Q

Integumentary System

A

Skin, Hair, Nails
Forms the external body covering & protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D
Houses cutaneous receptors as well as sweat & oil glands

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3
Q

Skeletal System

A

Bones & Joints
Protects & supports the body’s organs.
Provides framework for muscular movement
Blood cells are formed within the bones
Bones are an incredible mineral repository

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4
Q

Muscular System

A

Skeletal (arms, legs, torso), Cardiac (the heart), and Smooth Muscles (Organs & blood vessels)
Allows for environment manipulation, locomotion, and facial expression
Helps to maintain posture & produce heat

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5
Q

Nervous System

A

Brain, Nerves, & the Spinal Cord
The body’s control system that responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles & glands.
An electrical communication system

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6
Q

Endocrine System

A

Glands, Ovaries, Testes, & Pancreas
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism)
A chemical communication system

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7
Q

Lymphatic System

A

Red bone marrow, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph nodes
Picks up fluids leaked from blood vessels and returns them to the blood
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
Produces & houses white blood cells involved in immunity

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8
Q

Cardiovascular System

A

Blood Vessels & the Heart
Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, etc.

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9
Q

Respiratory System

A

Lungs, nose, trachea, intercostals, diaphragm

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10
Q

Digestive System

A

Stomach, large & small intestines

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11
Q

Urinary System

A

Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra
Disposal of waste

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12
Q

Reproductive System

A

Glands, genitals, etc.
The overall function is to produce offspring

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13
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintaining of balance within the body. Homeostasis is not an absolute point, rather a relative balance.
Homeostasis helps to maintain bodily balance under varying environmental conditions

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14
Q

Hemostasis

A

The method by which the body can repair small damages that occur in the cardiovascular system

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15
Q

Niels Bohr

A

Created the model of the atom that is used today

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16
Q

Marie Curie

A

Extensive research on the radioactivity of elements

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17
Q

Selman Waksman

A

Investigated soil microbes and how they produce compounds meant to defend themselves.
The research of soil microbes led to the discovery of streptomycin, the first effective antibiotic for tuberculosis

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18
Q

Isotope

A

An atom that varies in the number of neutrons within the nucleus

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19
Q

Ion

A

An atom that varies in the number of electrons, influencing its electric charge

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20
Q

Chemically Inert Elements

A

Elements with a full/complete outer shell of electrons

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21
Q

Chemically Reactive Elements

A

Elements with an incomplete outer shell of electrons

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22
Q

Ionic Bond

A

An element gives up an electron to another atom in order to improve stability in both atoms
Ionic Bonds are the STRONGEST
Formed when any element from column 1 combines with any element from column 17

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23
Q

Covalent Bond

A

Two atoms share an electron. Each atom’s shell is then full 50% of the time.
Covalent Bonds are formed any time you combine elements from columns 1-16. They are also formed when you combine any elements from columns 2-17.

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24
Q

Polar Covalent

A

Unequal sharing of electrons where one atom’s outer shell is complete more often than the other atom’s shell is
Polar Covalent Bonds are INTERMEDIATE in strength

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25
Q

Non-Polar Covalent

A

Equal sharing of electrons.
CO2 is nonpolar because the O atoms pull on C from both sides, evening things out.
Non-Polar Covalent Bonds are the WEAKEST

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26
Q

Hydrogen Bond

A

A bond that forms between molecules
Hydrogen Bonds are weaker than Ionic and Covalent bonds
Hydrogen Bonds give water the property of cohesion

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27
Q

pH

A

-Stands for “potential Hydrogen,” the pH scale shows the acidity or basicity of solutions.
-A scale from 0-14. 7 is Neutral. <7 is acidic. >7 is basic
-Measures the amounts of OH and H in a substance

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28
Q

Macromolecule

A

A combination of many molecules
- Four interlocking hydrocarbon rings form a steroid
- Cholesterol is the base for all steroids formed in the body
- Many macromolecules exhibit similarities (R groups)

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29
Q

Levels of Analysis of Macromolecules

A

-1 Primary Structure - The sequence of amino acids that forms the polypeptide chain
-2 Secondary Structure - The primary chain forms spirals (a-helices) and sheets (B-sheets)
-3 Tertiary Structure - a-helices and/or B-sheets are folded to form a compact globular molecule
-4 Quaternary Structure - Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a functional protein

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30
Q

Enzymes

A

-Biological catalysts that help reactions occur with less energy expenditure.
-Almost all enzymes are made of proteins
-Enzymes are NEVER a permanent part of the chemical reaction

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31
Q

What are the Major elements that compose the body?

A

Major:
- Oxygen
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen

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32
Q

What are the Lesser elements that compose the body?

A
  • Calcium
  • Phosphorous
  • Potassium
  • Sulfur
  • Sodium
  • Chlorine
  • Magnesium
  • Iodine
  • Iron
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33
Q

What are the Trace elements that compose the body?

A
  • Chromium
  • Cobalt
  • Copper
  • Fluorine
  • Manganese
  • Molybdenum
  • Selenium
  • Silicon
  • Tin
  • Vanadium
  • Zinc
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34
Q

Camillo Golgi

A

Identified the cell organelle now called the Golgi Body

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35
Q

Real vs. Stylized Cells

A

Stylized cells are “textbook” drawings where every organelle is in the exact same location and looks exactly the same in each picture.
In reality, cells vary a lot in size, shape, and location

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36
Q

The Cell Membrane: Associated Structures

A

Phospholipid Molecules - Molecules with hydrophilic “heads” and hydrophobic “tails”

Cholesterol - Molecules that help with PLB stability

Proteins - Groups of amino acids that help with the movement of molecules into, out of, or through the PLB

Extracellular Fluid - A watery environment outside the cell

Cytoplasm - A watery environment within the cell

Cytoskeletal Elements - Structures that perform a variety of different actions within a cell

Glycocalyx - A molecule in the PLB whose functions are used for protection, immunity to infection, defense against cancer, transplant compatibility, cell adhesion, fertilization, and embryonic development

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37
Q

Cell Junctions

A

Tight Junction - The simplest junctions, impermeable, similar to a spot weld, with little to no movement

Desmosomes - A more complex junction where anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together to reduce tension. Provides some flexibility
- Desmosomes use glycoproteins called cadherins as well as internal plaque proteins

Gap Junction - The most complex junction. Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for purposes of communication.
- Gap junctions use clusters of connexons, which are integral proteins that allow the passage of small molecules and ions between cells

38
Q

Integral Proteins

A

Transport - A protein that provides a hydrophilic channel across the PLB that is selective for a particular solute

Receptor - A protein that may have a binding site with a specific shape for a chemical messenger, such as a hormone

Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) - Elements of the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix anchored to membrane proteins that help to maintain cell shape

Enzyme - A protein built into the membrane with its active site exposed. In some cases, multiple enzymes act as a team to catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.

Channel - A tube-like protein that allows materials to flow freely across the PLB

Gated Channel - Similar to a channel protein, however, one side is closed off and opens at certain times

Cell-identity Marker - Glycoprotein ID tags that are specifically recognized by other cells

Cell adhesion - Membrane proteins that can hook together with other proteins to form intercellular junctions

39
Q

Peripheral Proteins

A

Proteins located either on the external or internal sides of the PLB

40
Q

Simple Diffusion

A

The passing of fat-soluble molecules directly through the PLB. The material moves from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration

41
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

The diffusion of molecules across the PLB via integral proteins. Material moves along the concentration gradient

42
Q

Types of Facilitated Diffusion

A

Carrier-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a protein that is specific for one chemical

Channel-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a channel protein. Only specific in terms of size and charge.

43
Q

Osmosis

A

Diffusion of a solvent (WATER) through a specific channel protein (AQUAPORIN) or through the PLB

Simple Osmosis - Water moves directly across the PLB

Protein-Assisted Osmosis - Water moves through the PLB via channel proteins called aquaporins

44
Q

Isotonic Solutions

A

Cells in isotonic solutions will retain normal size and shape because solutes can flow in and out (same concentration inside the cell and out)

45
Q

Hypertonic Solutions

A

Cells in hypertonic solutions will lose water by osmosis and shrink due to the higher concentration of solutes in the solution than are in the cell

46
Q

Hypotonic Solutions

A

Cells in hypotonic solutions will lyse (burst) because there are more solutes inside the cell than in the solution

47
Q

Hemolysis

A

The bursting of red blood cells due to being in a hypotonic solution

48
Q

Active Transport

A

Through the use of ATP, materials that would otherwise be unable to pass through the PLB are moved against the concentration gradient.

49
Q

Endocytosis

A

The process of a cell bringing large packages (vesicles) of material into the cell

50
Q

Types of Endocytosis

A

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis - Clathrin proteins pull the PLB into the cell, trapping materials within a vesicle

Phagocytosis - The cell is bringing solid material into the cell. Called “cell eating”

Pinocytosis - The cell is bringing a solution into the cell. Called “cell drinking”

Receptor-mediated endocytosis - The cell is bringing one solute into the cell preferentially while others are trapped unintentionally. Occurs via the assistance of membrane receptors. Called “cell fishing”

51
Q

Exocytosis

A

Getting rid of material after use in a vesicle. The vesicle merges w/ the PLB to release its contents to the exterior

The vesicle connects to the PLB by twisting together PLB snare and Vesicle snare proteins.

52
Q

Mitochondrion

A

Converts food energy into ATP energy. Composed of PLB

53
Q

Rough ER

A

A series of channels that allows protein-based materials to move through it. Composed of PLB. Flexible.

54
Q

Smooth ER

A

A series of channels that allow non protein-based materials to move through it. Composed of PLB

55
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

Manufactures new chemicals with materials from vesicles in the cell. Composed of PLB

56
Q

Lysosome

A

PLB-based vesicles filled with digestive enzymes that digest old organelles and the contents of other vesicles

57
Q

Cytoskeletal Elements

A

Microfilaments, intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules that all work to give structure to cellular shape. Not PLB-based

58
Q

Centriole

A

Help with cell division and the formation of cilia. Not PLB-based

59
Q

Nucleus

A

Stores genetic information. The control center of the cell. Composed of PLB

60
Q

Steps of the Cell Cycle

A

G1 - Growth
S - Synthesis
G2 - Growth
M - Mitosis

61
Q

Steps of Mitotic Phase

A

Prophase - Chromosomes start to condense & the mitotic spindle begins to form

Metaphase - Chromosomes line up in the middle

Anaphase - Chromosomes are pulled apart

Telophase - Chromosomes arrive at cell poles & the mitotic spindle disassembles

Interphase - G1, S, G2

62
Q

Characteristics of Cell Metabolism

A

Cofactors - Found in mineral supplements

Coenzymes - Found in vitamin supplements

63
Q

Krebs’ Cycle

A

The cycle of energy that occurs within the mitochondria that converts food energy into ATP.

The food energy for this cycle can come from amino acids, lipids, proteins, etc.

If you don’t eat food, the cells will begin to digest body structures (fat stores, skeletal muscles, heart musculature, etc.)

64
Q

Rosalyn Franklin, James Crick, Francis Watson

A

The researchers who identified the organization of DNA

65
Q

The process of manufacturing proteins

A

Proteins are formed by ribosomes on the RER

Proteins are packaged into transport vesicles that originate on the ER

Transport vesicles fuse into clusters and unload proteins into the Golgi complex

The Golgi complex modifies protein structure

Golgi vesicles are formed that contain finished proteins

Secretory vesicles release proteins via exocytosis

66
Q

Levels of observing DNA

A

Quaternary - Fiber folds further into irregular loops with increased thickness

Tertiary - Chromatin folds into thicker zigzag fiber

Secondary - DNA winds around histones to form core particles

Primary - DNA double helix

67
Q

Protein Synthesis

A

DNA -> mRNA -> protein

The step from DNA to mRNA is called transcription

The step from mRNA to protein is called translation

Once a protein is synthesized, it docks on the ER where it is modified and packaged into transport vesicles.

68
Q

Karyotype

A

A logical mapping of the different pairs of chromosomes that exist within an organism.

Karyotype tests help to check the growth and development of humans.

69
Q

How can genes affect tendency to develop certain diseases

A

Genetic variations & mutations can make individuals more likely to develop certain diseases

70
Q

Types of Tissues

A

Simple - A single layer of cells

Stratified - Multiple layers of cells

Squamous - Flat/Squished cells

Cuboidal - Cells that are equal in height, width, and depth

Columnar - Elongated, tube-like, column-like cells with a nucleus on one end

71
Q

Classes of Tissues

A

Nervous

Muscle

Epithelial

Connective

72
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Internal Communication

Brain, spinal cord, nerves

73
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

Contracts to cause movement

Skeletal - attached to the bones, obvious striations

Cardiac - The heart muscle, cells have striations and intercalated discs

Smooth - In the walls of the intestines and other hollow organs. Cells lack striations and have no intercalated discs

74
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

Skin & organ lining

Found in the epidermis and esophagus lining

75
Q

Connective

A

Ligaments & cartilage

Dense - Made of tendons and ligaments, consists of highly dense collagen fibers

Loose - Made of extracellular matrix & collagenous, elastic, reticular fibers

76
Q

Loose Connective Tissue

A

Adipose - fat (energy) storage cells that act as a protective layer

Areolar - Gel-like matrix with elastic, collagen, and fibroblast fibers. Also contains white blood cells

Reticular - A network of reticular fibers in a loose ground substance

77
Q

Dense Connective Tissue

A

Regular - Resilient, durable connective tissue found in ligaments & tendons

Irregular - Found in fibrous capsules around joints

Elastic - Found in the aorta, allowing it to take on the pressure of our hearts pumping blood

78
Q

Cartilage Connective Tissue

A

Hyaline - Average in strength & flexibility. Seen in the costal cartilages connecting the ribs to the sternum.

Elastic - Low in strength & high in flexibility. Seen in the earlobe.

Fibrocartilage - High in strength & low in flexibility. Seen in the intervertebral discs of the spine.

79
Q

Osseous Connective Tissue

A

Bones; hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers

80
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

A network consisting of a cell body, dendrites, neuron processes, and axons.

81
Q

Membrane Classes

A

Cutaneous - The skin, covers the body

Mucous - Line body cavities open to the exterior. Nasal cavity, Mouth, Esophagus, Lung Bronchi

Serous - Line body cavities closed to the exterior. Exterior of organs such as lungs, intestines, heart, etc.

82
Q

Serous Membrane

A

Secretes Serous Fluid that reduces friction between rubbing organs

83
Q

Mucous Membrane

A

Secretes Mucus allowing smooth passage of food down the esophagus and for food to sit in the stomach without irritating the organ itself

84
Q

Classifications for Exocrine Glands

A

Tubular - Tube-like duct shape

Alveolar - Globe-like (round) duct shape

Simple - A single duct

Branched - A single duct with two ducts branching off of it

Compound - a cluster of simple branches all stemming from one pore.

Tubuloalveolar - A set of ducts with a combination of tubular and alveolar ducts within a cluster

85
Q

Modes of secretion

A

Merocrine glands - Products are secreted by exocytosis

Holocrine glands - The entire secretory cell ruptures & releases secretions of dead cell fragments

86
Q

Edward Zirm

A

First Corneal Transplant

He took a cornea from a cadaver and transplanted it into an individual with a damaged cornea, restoring their vision.

The operation was successful because the cornea doesn’t have direct contact with the bloodstream, thus the immune system didn’t reject the implant.

87
Q

Where does the production of skin-darkening pigments occur?

A

The stratum basale of the epidermis

88
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

Secrete material into the bloodstream

89
Q

If a solution has a greater number of H+ ions than OH- ions, it is:

A

Acidic

90
Q

If a solution has a greater number of OH- ions than H+ ions, it is:

A

Basic

91
Q

The fundamental mechanism that keeps a variable close to its set point

A

Negative Feedback

92
Q

What is the difference between ovular and circular hair shafts?

A

Ovular shafts - Curly hair

Round shafts - Straight hair

Biol 232 (6 decks)

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