Exam 1: Ch. 1-5 Flashcards
Louis Pasteur
-Microbiologist
-Disproved “Spontaneous Generation”
-Pasteurization - minimizing foodborne illness via food treatments
-Vaccine for rabies
Integumentary System
Skin, Hair, Nails
Forms the external body covering & protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D
Houses cutaneous receptors as well as sweat & oil glands
Skeletal System
Bones & Joints
Protects & supports the body’s organs.
Provides framework for muscular movement
Blood cells are formed within the bones
Bones are an incredible mineral repository
Muscular System
Skeletal (arms, legs, torso), Cardiac (the heart), and Smooth Muscles (Organs & blood vessels)
Allows for environment manipulation, locomotion, and facial expression
Helps to maintain posture & produce heat
Nervous System
Brain, Nerves, & the Spinal Cord
The body’s control system that responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles & glands.
An electrical communication system
Endocrine System
Glands, Ovaries, Testes, & Pancreas
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism)
A chemical communication system
Lymphatic System
Red bone marrow, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph nodes
Picks up fluids leaked from blood vessels and returns them to the blood
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
Produces & houses white blood cells involved in immunity
Cardiovascular System
Blood Vessels & the Heart
Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, etc.
Respiratory System
Lungs, nose, trachea, intercostals, diaphragm
Digestive System
Stomach, large & small intestines
Urinary System
Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra
Disposal of waste
Reproductive System
Glands, genitals, etc.
The overall function is to produce offspring
Homeostasis
The maintaining of balance within the body. Homeostasis is not an absolute point, rather a relative balance.
Homeostasis helps to maintain bodily balance under varying environmental conditions
Hemostasis
The method by which the body can repair small damages that occur in the cardiovascular system
Niels Bohr
Created the model of the atom that is used today
Marie Curie
Extensive research on the radioactivity of elements
Selman Waksman
Investigated soil microbes and how they produce compounds meant to defend themselves.
The research of soil microbes led to the discovery of streptomycin, the first effective antibiotic for tuberculosis
Isotope
An atom that varies in the number of neutrons within the nucleus
Ion
An atom that varies in the number of electrons, influencing its electric charge
Chemically Inert Elements
Elements with a full/complete outer shell of electrons
Chemically Reactive Elements
Elements with an incomplete outer shell of electrons
Ionic Bond
An element gives up an electron to another atom in order to improve stability in both atoms
Ionic Bonds are the STRONGEST
Formed when any element from column 1 combines with any element from column 17
Covalent Bond
Two atoms share an electron. Each atom’s shell is then full 50% of the time.
Covalent Bonds are formed any time you combine elements from columns 1-16. They are also formed when you combine any elements from columns 2-17.
Polar Covalent
Unequal sharing of electrons where one atom’s outer shell is complete more often than the other atom’s shell is
Polar Covalent Bonds are INTERMEDIATE in strength
Non-Polar Covalent
Equal sharing of electrons.
CO2 is nonpolar because the O atoms pull on C from both sides, evening things out.
Non-Polar Covalent Bonds are the WEAKEST
Hydrogen Bond
A bond that forms between molecules
Hydrogen Bonds are weaker than Ionic and Covalent bonds
Hydrogen Bonds give water the property of cohesion
pH
-Stands for “potential Hydrogen,” the pH scale shows the acidity or basicity of solutions.
-A scale from 0-14. 7 is Neutral. <7 is acidic. >7 is basic
-Measures the amounts of OH and H in a substance
Macromolecule
A combination of many molecules
- Four interlocking hydrocarbon rings form a steroid
- Cholesterol is the base for all steroids formed in the body
- Many macromolecules exhibit similarities (R groups)
Levels of Analysis of Macromolecules
-1 Primary Structure - The sequence of amino acids that forms the polypeptide chain
-2 Secondary Structure - The primary chain forms spirals (a-helices) and sheets (B-sheets)
-3 Tertiary Structure - a-helices and/or B-sheets are folded to form a compact globular molecule
-4 Quaternary Structure - Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary structure, combine to form a functional protein
Enzymes
-Biological catalysts that help reactions occur with less energy expenditure.
-Almost all enzymes are made of proteins
-Enzymes are NEVER a permanent part of the chemical reaction
What are the Major elements that compose the body?
Major:
- Oxygen
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Nitrogen
What are the Lesser elements that compose the body?
- Calcium
- Phosphorous
- Potassium
- Sulfur
- Sodium
- Chlorine
- Magnesium
- Iodine
- Iron
What are the Trace elements that compose the body?
- Chromium
- Cobalt
- Copper
- Fluorine
- Manganese
- Molybdenum
- Selenium
- Silicon
- Tin
- Vanadium
- Zinc
Camillo Golgi
Identified the cell organelle now called the Golgi Body
Real vs. Stylized Cells
Stylized cells are “textbook” drawings where every organelle is in the exact same location and looks exactly the same in each picture.
In reality, cells vary a lot in size, shape, and location
The Cell Membrane: Associated Structures
Phospholipid Molecules - Molecules with hydrophilic “heads” and hydrophobic “tails”
Cholesterol - Molecules that help with PLB stability
Proteins - Groups of amino acids that help with the movement of molecules into, out of, or through the PLB
Extracellular Fluid - A watery environment outside the cell
Cytoplasm - A watery environment within the cell
Cytoskeletal Elements - Structures that perform a variety of different actions within a cell
Glycocalyx - A molecule in the PLB whose functions are used for protection, immunity to infection, defense against cancer, transplant compatibility, cell adhesion, fertilization, and embryonic development
Cell Junctions
Tight Junction - The simplest junctions, impermeable, similar to a spot weld, with little to no movement
Desmosomes - A more complex junction where anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together to reduce tension. Provides some flexibility
- Desmosomes use glycoproteins called cadherins as well as internal plaque proteins
Gap Junction - The most complex junction. Communicating junctions allow ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next for purposes of communication.
- Gap junctions use clusters of connexons, which are integral proteins that allow the passage of small molecules and ions between cells
Integral Proteins
Transport - A protein that provides a hydrophilic channel across the PLB that is selective for a particular solute
Receptor - A protein that may have a binding site with a specific shape for a chemical messenger, such as a hormone
Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM) - Elements of the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix anchored to membrane proteins that help to maintain cell shape
Enzyme - A protein built into the membrane with its active site exposed. In some cases, multiple enzymes act as a team to catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway.
Channel - A tube-like protein that allows materials to flow freely across the PLB
Gated Channel - Similar to a channel protein, however, one side is closed off and opens at certain times
Cell-identity Marker - Glycoprotein ID tags that are specifically recognized by other cells
Cell adhesion - Membrane proteins that can hook together with other proteins to form intercellular junctions
Peripheral Proteins
Proteins located either on the external or internal sides of the PLB
Simple Diffusion
The passing of fat-soluble molecules directly through the PLB. The material moves from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
Facilitated Diffusion
The diffusion of molecules across the PLB via integral proteins. Material moves along the concentration gradient
Types of Facilitated Diffusion
Carrier-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a protein that is specific for one chemical
Channel-Mediated Diffusion - Diffusion via a channel protein. Only specific in terms of size and charge.
Osmosis
Diffusion of a solvent (WATER) through a specific channel protein (AQUAPORIN) or through the PLB
Simple Osmosis - Water moves directly across the PLB
Protein-Assisted Osmosis - Water moves through the PLB via channel proteins called aquaporins
Isotonic Solutions
Cells in isotonic solutions will retain normal size and shape because solutes can flow in and out (same concentration inside the cell and out)
Hypertonic Solutions
Cells in hypertonic solutions will lose water by osmosis and shrink due to the higher concentration of solutes in the solution than are in the cell
Hypotonic Solutions
Cells in hypotonic solutions will lyse (burst) because there are more solutes inside the cell than in the solution
Hemolysis
The bursting of red blood cells due to being in a hypotonic solution
Active Transport
Through the use of ATP, materials that would otherwise be unable to pass through the PLB are moved against the concentration gradient.
Endocytosis
The process of a cell bringing large packages (vesicles) of material into the cell
Types of Endocytosis
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis - Clathrin proteins pull the PLB into the cell, trapping materials within a vesicle
Phagocytosis - The cell is bringing solid material into the cell. Called “cell eating”
Pinocytosis - The cell is bringing a solution into the cell. Called “cell drinking”
Receptor-mediated endocytosis - The cell is bringing one solute into the cell preferentially while others are trapped unintentionally. Occurs via the assistance of membrane receptors. Called “cell fishing”
Exocytosis
Getting rid of material after use in a vesicle. The vesicle merges w/ the PLB to release its contents to the exterior
The vesicle connects to the PLB by twisting together PLB snare and Vesicle snare proteins.
Mitochondrion
Converts food energy into ATP energy. Composed of PLB
Rough ER
A series of channels that allows protein-based materials to move through it. Composed of PLB. Flexible.
Smooth ER
A series of channels that allow non protein-based materials to move through it. Composed of PLB
Golgi Apparatus
Manufactures new chemicals with materials from vesicles in the cell. Composed of PLB
Lysosome
PLB-based vesicles filled with digestive enzymes that digest old organelles and the contents of other vesicles
Cytoskeletal Elements
Microfilaments, intermediate Filaments, and Microtubules that all work to give structure to cellular shape. Not PLB-based
Centriole
Help with cell division and the formation of cilia. Not PLB-based
Nucleus
Stores genetic information. The control center of the cell. Composed of PLB
Steps of the Cell Cycle
G1 - Growth
S - Synthesis
G2 - Growth
M - Mitosis
Steps of Mitotic Phase
Prophase - Chromosomes start to condense & the mitotic spindle begins to form
Metaphase - Chromosomes line up in the middle
Anaphase - Chromosomes are pulled apart
Telophase - Chromosomes arrive at cell poles & the mitotic spindle disassembles
Interphase - G1, S, G2
Characteristics of Cell Metabolism
Cofactors - Found in mineral supplements
Coenzymes - Found in vitamin supplements
Krebs’ Cycle
The cycle of energy that occurs within the mitochondria that converts food energy into ATP.
The food energy for this cycle can come from amino acids, lipids, proteins, etc.
If you don’t eat food, the cells will begin to digest body structures (fat stores, skeletal muscles, heart musculature, etc.)
Rosalyn Franklin, James Crick, Francis Watson
The researchers who identified the organization of DNA
The process of manufacturing proteins
Proteins are formed by ribosomes on the RER
Proteins are packaged into transport vesicles that originate on the ER
Transport vesicles fuse into clusters and unload proteins into the Golgi complex
The Golgi complex modifies protein structure
Golgi vesicles are formed that contain finished proteins
Secretory vesicles release proteins via exocytosis
Levels of observing DNA
Quaternary - Fiber folds further into irregular loops with increased thickness
Tertiary - Chromatin folds into thicker zigzag fiber
Secondary - DNA winds around histones to form core particles
Primary - DNA double helix
Protein Synthesis
DNA -> mRNA -> protein
The step from DNA to mRNA is called transcription
The step from mRNA to protein is called translation
Once a protein is synthesized, it docks on the ER where it is modified and packaged into transport vesicles.
Karyotype
A logical mapping of the different pairs of chromosomes that exist within an organism.
Karyotype tests help to check the growth and development of humans.
How can genes affect tendency to develop certain diseases
Genetic variations & mutations can make individuals more likely to develop certain diseases
Types of Tissues
Simple - A single layer of cells
Stratified - Multiple layers of cells
Squamous - Flat/Squished cells
Cuboidal - Cells that are equal in height, width, and depth
Columnar - Elongated, tube-like, column-like cells with a nucleus on one end
Classes of Tissues
Nervous
Muscle
Epithelial
Connective
Nervous Tissue
Internal Communication
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Muscle Tissue
Contracts to cause movement
Skeletal - attached to the bones, obvious striations
Cardiac - The heart muscle, cells have striations and intercalated discs
Smooth - In the walls of the intestines and other hollow organs. Cells lack striations and have no intercalated discs
Epithelial Tissue
Skin & organ lining
Found in the epidermis and esophagus lining
Connective
Ligaments & cartilage
Dense - Made of tendons and ligaments, consists of highly dense collagen fibers
Loose - Made of extracellular matrix & collagenous, elastic, reticular fibers
Loose Connective Tissue
Adipose - fat (energy) storage cells that act as a protective layer
Areolar - Gel-like matrix with elastic, collagen, and fibroblast fibers. Also contains white blood cells
Reticular - A network of reticular fibers in a loose ground substance
Dense Connective Tissue
Regular - Resilient, durable connective tissue found in ligaments & tendons
Irregular - Found in fibrous capsules around joints
Elastic - Found in the aorta, allowing it to take on the pressure of our hearts pumping blood
Cartilage Connective Tissue
Hyaline - Average in strength & flexibility. Seen in the costal cartilages connecting the ribs to the sternum.
Elastic - Low in strength & high in flexibility. Seen in the earlobe.
Fibrocartilage - High in strength & low in flexibility. Seen in the intervertebral discs of the spine.
Osseous Connective Tissue
Bones; hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers
Nervous Tissue
A network consisting of a cell body, dendrites, neuron processes, and axons.
Membrane Classes
Cutaneous - The skin, covers the body
Mucous - Line body cavities open to the exterior. Nasal cavity, Mouth, Esophagus, Lung Bronchi
Serous - Line body cavities closed to the exterior. Exterior of organs such as lungs, intestines, heart, etc.
Serous Membrane
Secretes Serous Fluid that reduces friction between rubbing organs
Mucous Membrane
Secretes Mucus allowing smooth passage of food down the esophagus and for food to sit in the stomach without irritating the organ itself
Classifications for Exocrine Glands
Tubular - Tube-like duct shape
Alveolar - Globe-like (round) duct shape
Simple - A single duct
Branched - A single duct with two ducts branching off of it
Compound - a cluster of simple branches all stemming from one pore.
Tubuloalveolar - A set of ducts with a combination of tubular and alveolar ducts within a cluster
Modes of secretion
Merocrine glands - Products are secreted by exocytosis
Holocrine glands - The entire secretory cell ruptures & releases secretions of dead cell fragments
Edward Zirm
First Corneal Transplant
He took a cornea from a cadaver and transplanted it into an individual with a damaged cornea, restoring their vision.
The operation was successful because the cornea doesn’t have direct contact with the bloodstream, thus the immune system didn’t reject the implant.
Where does the production of skin-darkening pigments occur?
The stratum basale of the epidermis
Endocrine Glands
Secrete material into the bloodstream
If a solution has a greater number of H+ ions than OH- ions, it is:
Acidic
If a solution has a greater number of OH- ions than H+ ions, it is:
Basic
The fundamental mechanism that keeps a variable close to its set point
Negative Feedback
What is the difference between ovular and circular hair shafts?
Ovular shafts - Curly hair
Round shafts - Straight hair
