FINAL EXAM Flashcards
Describe the challenges of plants moving from a watery environment onto land, and evolutionary structures that met those challenges.
advantages to land: more sunlight and fewer herbivores
disadvantages: gametes, zygotes, and embryos must be kept moist AND must obtain and move water throughout body
the size of gametophyte decreased and the size of sporophyte increased
List the basic characteristics shared by plants and green algae
chlorophyll a and b
store carbs as starch
have cellulose in cell walls
and dna and rna link 2 groups
five major evolutionary stages of land plants
- development of embryo protection
- development of vascular tissue (to get taller)
- development of megaphylls (large leaves with branching veins)
- development of seeds
- development of flowers and fruit
describe the alternation of generations life cycle
alternation= 2 multicellular individuals alternate,, each producing the other
sporophyte (2n, diploid) : produces spores by meiosis
gametophyte (n, haploid) : produces gametes by mitosis, a sperm and egg fuse forming diploid zygote
general characteristics of nonvascular plants and Mosses in particular.
-no vascular tissues and no seeds
-small
-live in moist areas
-gametophyte generation is dominant
-flagellated sperm
-sporophyte relies on parent plant
-spores released from capsule grow into new gametophyte
general characteristics of seedless vascular plants
-have true roots, stems, and leaves
roots= absorb water and minerals from the soil
stems = condict water to the leaves
leaves = photosynthesis and gas exchange (regular evaporation)
-sporophyte is dominant
-seedless vascular plants produce windblown spores
general characteristics of the gymnosperms while concentrating on conifers and Ginkgo biloba.
Most are cone-bearing
Ovules located on the surfaces of their cone scales
Later become seeds
No enclosing tissue around seeds
Adaptations and Uses of conifers
Adapted to cold, dry weather
Needle-like leaves conserve water with thick cuticle
Pollen cones and seed cones
Wood for construction and paper
Resin for rosin and turpentine
Gingkoes
Only one species survives - Gingko biloba
Female trees produce bad smelling seeds.
Male trees are preferred for ornamental planting.
Gingkoes are resistant to pollution and disease
general characteristics of angiosperms
Angiosperm – angio – “vessel” in Greek
Seeds develop from an ovule within an ovary (the vessel).
Ovary becomes the fruit
Produce covered seeds (not naked)
relationship of the flower parts to fruit.
Receptacle: tip of stalk that bears flowers
Sepals (calyx): modified leaves that protect bud
Petals (corolla): modified leaves, may be colorful
Diverse in size, shape, and color
Attracts a particular pollinator
Stamens: male reproductive structures
Anther: pollen production
Filament: stalk
Carpel (pistil): female reproductive structures
(Stigma: for reception of pollen
Style: elevates the stigma
Ovary: ovule production and containment, becomes fruit)
Label the parts of a flower on a diagram.
yuh
relationship of flowers to mode of pollination and fruit to seed distribution.
Animal Pollinators
Bees and other insects, Bats, birds
Nectar and pollen both eaten by pollinators
Animal pollinated flowers usually have
Showy petals or strong fragrance
Wind pollinated flowers usually lack showy petals
Grasses, oaks, hickory
fern life cycle
- sporophyte (dominant)
- sporangia (on the underside of leaflets)
- spores (meiosis occurs within sporangia and spores are produced)
- gametophyte (spore germinates into prothallus (the gametophyte) which bears archegonia at the notch and antheridia at the tip of rhizoids
- fertilization (takes place when moisture is present bc flagellated sperm must swim in water to antheridia to the egg)
- zygote (sporophyte zygote develops in archegonium, distinct first leaf appears above the prothallus)
characteristics of ferns
sporophyte dominant
fronds grow from horizontal stem
fronds often compound with leaflets
spores found on bottom of frond
fronds are MEGAPHYLLS
fiddle heads are edible
lycophytes
club moss!!
among first vascular tissue plants
well developed root, stems, and leaves
sends upright stems
small leaves called microphylls with single vein
sporangia are born on terminal clusters of leaves
fruit and seed dispersal
Dry fruit often in pods and can break open to scatter seeds, have wind blown fruit, or attach to animals
Fleshy fruits change color when ripe as a signal
Fruit eaten and seeds dispersed
Describe the characteristics that all animals share
multicellular
locomotion with muscle fibers
ingestion of food
diploid adult with sexual reproduction (gametes are haploid)
zygote divides by mitosis to form hollow ball of cells called blastula
embryonic development
Describe the body styles animals can have, symmetry, cephalization, levels or organization,
asymmetrical: no particular symmetry (sponges)
radial symmetry: circular organization, many longitudinal slices will produce mirror images (squid), sessile for float freely, no head
bilateral symmetry: definite right and left halves, only one longitudinal cut down the midline produces mirror images, show cephalization (brain and sense organs at anterior)
ORGANIZATION
cellular: no true tissues, sponges
tissue: have 2 or 3 germ layers (ectoderm and endoderms like hydra cnidarians
organ: all 3 germ layers (ecto, endo, and mesoderm)
Describe what is meant by the terms deuterostome and protostome.
protostomes: blastopore becomes mouth
deuterostomes: blastopore becomes anus
Describe the anatomy and life cycle of sponges
sponges = cell organization
sac like body with pores
multicell but LACK ORGANIZED TISSUES
filter feeder- filter water for food
choanocytes- flagellated cells
spongin= proteinaceous skeletons (natty sponge)
Contrast the way of life a sponge and a cnidarian
Describe the way of life of Flatworms, including free-living planarians and tapeworms
incomplete digestive tract with one opening
no body cavity
planarians: muscles and excretory, reproductive, and digestive systems, freshwater, eyespots, feed on small organisms
tapeworms: primary host ingests meat containing bladder worms
-bladder worm attaches to intestine to mature into tapeworm
-as tapeworm grows, proglottids mature, and eventually fill with eggs
-eggs leave primary host in feces contaminating water and vegetation
-livestock ingest eggs becoming secondary host as larva becomes worm in muscle
-rare uncooked meat from secondary host has bladder worms
Describe the three basic characteristics of molluscs.
- visceral mass: includes most organs
foot: muscular portion for locomotion
mantle: covering that almost encloses visceral mass
-mantle cavity: space between 2 folds of mantle
-mantle may secrete a shell
Compare and contrast Gastropods, Cephalopods, and Bivalves.
gastropods: conchs and snails
-foot is flattened
-moveby muscle contractions of foot
-some herbivores some carnivores
-existence of shell varies
cephalopods: squid, octopus, nautilus
-foot evolved into funnel or siphon
-powerful beak and radula used for feeding
-cephalization is apparent
-octopus have no shell, squid have reduced shell
-octopuses most intelligent invertebrates
bivalves: clams, oysters, scallops, mussels
-2 part shell composed of protein and calcium carbonate secreted by mantle
-gills on mantle cavity for gas exchange
-filter feeders: water enters through incurrent siphon
Describe the basic characteristics of Annelids, concentrating on earthworms.
segmented- visible rings encircling outside body
no internal or external skeleton
-HYDROSTATIC SKELETON: fluid filled interior that supports muscle contraction and enhances flexibility
each body segment moves INDEPENDENTLY
locomotion by contraction and expansion of each segment
Describe the three basic characteristics of arthopods.
- segmentation
- joint appendages
- exoskeleton
4.respiratory organs
4.undergo metamorphosis
Compare and contrast Crustaceans, Insects, and Arachnids.
Crustaceans: largely marine arthropods (barnacles, lobsters, crab)
some freshwater (crayfish)
some terrestrial (sowbug)
named for hard exoskeleton
Insects: head (sensory antenna with compound (big) and simple eyes, mouthparts)
abdomen (internal organs)
thorax( 3 pairs of legs and wings, wings help escape from predators, mating, and find food)
Arachnids: scorpions, spiders, ticks
cephalothorax has 6 pairs of appendages chelicerae, pedipalps, and 4 pairs of walking legs
abdomen has internal organs
SCORPIONS= OLDEST TERRESTRIAL ARTHROPODS
-pedipalps are large pinchers, venomous stinger
insect adaptations to land
respiratory system = spiracles lead into trachea
-small tubes of air throughout body
-air is pumped by contraction and relaxation of body wall
-internal fertilization protect gametes and zygotes from desiccation
-sperm is released by a male penis passed to female seminal receptacle
insect metamorphosis
immature stage = larva becomes adult
immature grasshopper (nymph) looks like the adult and undergoes gradual metamorph.
immature butterfly (caterpillar) looks diff from adult
and undergoes complete metamorph.
Describe the basic characteristics of Echinoderms, concentrating on Sea Stars and their method of eating
diverse group of marine
endoskeleton made of calcium rich plates
named for spines sticking out of skin
lack vertebrate features
-radial symmetry adult, bilateral larva
starfish= found on shorelines
5 rayed body with oral underside and aboral (booty) upper side
ticks and mites and spiders
T & M= parasites that transmit diseased like spotted fever and lyme
spiders= narrow waist separates cephalothorax from ab
-chelicerae have fangs with poison
book lungs for gas exchange
-silk glands for webs
anatomy of cnidarians and lifecycle
have true tissues
aquatic
named for cnidocytes (stinging cells containing nematocysts) used to capture prey, discharged when cnid. is triggered
examples: hydra, anemones, corals, sea jellies
life cycle: polyp: mouth and tentacles are UPWARD
-sessile, sea anemones attached to substrate under water, corals encased in calcium carbonate)
medusa: bell shaped mouth DOWNWARD
-jellyfish have this as primary stage, depend on tides and currents for movement
polyp–>asexual budding–>medusa–>fertilization
oligochaetes (earthworms)
scavengers on dead or living organic matter
have a few setae per segment
head NOT DEVELOPED
gas exchange across body wall
hermaphroditic (fuck facing opposite directions, clitellum is fused body segment)
Describe the characteristics that all chordates share at some point in their life cycle
notochord: dorsal supporting rod, replaced by vertebral column during development
nerve cord: dorsal tubular, containing fluid-filled canal
pharyngeal pouches: final development depends on adult chordate
postanal tail: extends beyond the anus
Describe the features of lancelets
non vertebrate
live in shallow coastal waters
retain all 4 chordate characteristics as an adult
filter feeder
Use a phylogenetic tree to determine when certain vertebrate features evolved
notochord
vertebrate
jaws
bony skeleton
lungs
4 limbs
amniotic egg
mammary gland
Compare and contrast jawless and jawed fished
JAWLESS
-hag fish
-cylindrical body shape with smooth, no scaled skin
-no jaw or paired fins
-scavengers
-extreme slime defense
JAWS
-tooth bearing structures in the head that evolved from gill arches
CARTILAGINOUS = sharks, skates, rays
skeleton of cartilage
detect prey with electric currents, sense pressure thru lat line
and good sense of smell (nemo, bruce)
Describe the major evolutionary innovations that distinguish the fishes from the amphibians
RAY FINNED: paired fins supported by bony rays
swim bladder for buoyancy
steamline shape
bony scales
BONY/LOBE FINNED: evolved into amphibians, coelacanths are living fossils, fleshy appendages, most had lungs
used lobed fins to crawl and swim in water
Describe the features of the three living groups of amphibians
frogs, toads, and newts
-can live both on land and water (reproduce in water, larval stages in water, adults on land)
tetrapods with ears and larynx for vocalization
have a larger brain than fish
small lungs in adults
Describe the parts of the amniotic egg that show it’s to be an adaptation to land
made development on land POSSIBLE
-embryo with atmospheric O2 food and water
-embryo surrounded by extraembryonic membranes
-chorion aides gas exchange
-yolk provides nutrients
-allantois stores waste
-amnion prevents drying out and protection
Describe the major evolutionary innovations that distinguish reptiles from mammals
reptiles: body covered with scales to protect against drying out
well developed senses
well developed lungs with rib cage
male penis passes sperm into females
fertilization is internal, female has leathery eggs
mammals: body hair and milk producing mammary glands
endothermic (hair provides insulation)
very efficient respiratory and circulatory systems to birds
high level of care for the young (born alive except monotremes)
mammary glands aid in nursing
List the features that distinguish birds from the other reptiles
feathers are modified scales, legs have scales
amniote egg with hard shell
endothermic
nonavian dinos have evidence of feathers and hollow bones
PHYSIOLOGY
-forelimbs modified as wings
hollow bones with air cavities
beak replaces jaws with teeth
large sternum aids attachment of flight muscles
Identify the features that distinguish the three major groups of living mammals.
monotremes: hard shell eggs, secretee milk onto body surface (male and female, babies lick it up)
exist ONLY IN AUSTRALIA (platypus and anteaters)
marsupials: develop in female body
born immature
complete development in female pouch
attach to nipples in pouch, mainly in Australia (kangaroos, koalas), virginia opossum only one in MEXICO
Placental: extraembryonic membranes are modified
develop in uterus
placenta between fetal and maternal blood
active life on land
lungs expanded and contain diaphragm
constant internal body temp
body insulating hair
well dev. brain
Describe the basic characteristics of primates
adapted to an arboreal life (in trees)
-limbs are mobile
-hands ad feet have 5 digits
-many have opposable thumbs and big toes (not humans)
-powerful precise grip
easier to reach food
-improves grasping and releasing tree limbs
-short snout for eye to be in front of head
-active in day and can see colors
one offspring per birth, juvenile dependency and emphsasis on learned behavior
brain larger (sight increases, smell shrinks)
nonvertebrate chordates vs vertebrate
non= tunicates and lanceletes
vert= fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals
cartilaginous: first to dev. jaws, some bony fish had lungs
Compare and contrast the terms nature and nurture in a behavioral ecology context
nurture is the idea how much we are raised and our life experiences affect our behavior. nature is how much genetics define our behavior
nature or nurture
homosexuality: some people say that people are born gay while others say that it learned through experiences
Analyze data from experiments to decide whether a particular behavior is more affected by genetics or the environment
The snake experiment on chapter 33.1 is showing how the behavior is due to genetics by looking at food choices of snakes and if crossbreeding them causes a change in that behavior of food choice.
Identify an experiment that shows behavior can be environmentally influenced
laughing gull experiment
Compare and contrast the types of learning known as imprinting, associative learning
imprinting: during sensitive period chick will follow whatever it sees moving first no matter what it is
associative learning: when you smell baking bread you get hungry. you associate 2 events together
example demonstrates imprinting, classical conditioning, or operant conditioning
Classical conditioning is like skinners dog salivating experiment where you can make an animal associate two stimuli to a response if they are presented at the same time. (Bell and food time so dog salivates when the bell is rung)
Operant conditioning is learning a response through either positive or negative reinforcement of a stimulus.
Contrast the different types of associative learning
Classical conditioning is where you set a stimulus to a response but operant condition is reinforcement to strengthen/stop a response.
animal communication
-Chemical is where species spread pheromones
-auditory is hearing and listening for sounds
-visual communication is through sight
-Tactile communication is by touch.
advantages and disadvantages of chemical, auditory, visual, and tactile communication.
-Chemical is good for long time markings and work both night and day
-Auditory is useful in dense areas and nighttime, but has a small range
-Visual is good for day communication and can communicate without chemical or auditory needs but bad in night
-Tactile is good for building a social bond but it requires species being together.
which kind of communication an organism might use based on its biology/sensory structures.
why territoriality evolved in certain animal groups
There is a set space where an organism can search for food so some animals are territorial and protect their land to ensure they can get the energy it needs to survive.
why females should be choosier than males in selecting a mate
Because males have to support not only them but usually their young as well. Picking a partner with high fitness also increases chances of the offspring to have better levels of fitness in their genetics.
paradox of sexual selection.
advantages and disadvantages of living in a society.
Some advantages of group living is a higher chance of survival against predators and the sharing of knowledge between the group. Disadvantages include fights for food resources and mates. Also subordinates get less food
theories as to why altruism might evolve.
Discuss the theories as to why altruism might evolve.
To increase the chances of offspring or close relatives to survive so the genes of the animal sacrificing their safety/life to survive since close relatives carry similar DNA.
Identify the aspects of biology the study of ecology encompasses.
the study of ecology encompasses the interactions among all organisms with their physical environment
different levels of ecological study.
the study of ecology encompasses levels of organization that proceed from the individual organism to the population, to the community, and finally to an ecosystem
Calculate the rate of annual increase in a population
Birth - Death / Population.
exponential and logistic grow pattern in populations.
Exponential- Continuous increase in population like compound interest.
Logistic-Starts of slow, gradually increases, and then evens out due to environmental resistance.
Predict how environmental factors will affect population growth rates.
Got it! Ex. - Drought causes lack of water and destruction of crops. “california drought”.
how the proportion of individuals at varying reproductive stages determines a population’s age distribution.
1.Increasing population-prereproductive ages the largest proportion
* Stable population-size of reproductive group equals size of prereproductive group, postreproductive group smallest proportion.
* Decreasing population-prereproductive group smaller than reproductive group.
basic predictions about population growth from age structure diagrams.
difference between density dependent and density independent factors of population growth.
Dependent - Disease,competition, etc.
Independent - Fire,Floods,Natural disasters. Stuff that occurs and doesn’t rely on population growth
how interspecific interactions affect population growth.
Members of two species using the same limited resource will start competition, thus fighting one another for it.
describe the different forms of symbiotic relationships.
Parasitism - Derives nourishment from host
Commensalism - One species benefits while the other isn’t harmed.
Mutualism - Both species benefit.
autotrophs and heterotrophs obtain nutrients.
Autotrophs - Requires inorganic nutrients and outside energy source for food. (producer) makes its own food. (plant through photosynthesis)
Heterotrophs - Obtain nutrients from other organisms. (consumers) (wolf to rabbit)(carnivores,herbivores,omnivores)
Describe energy flow and biogeochemical cycling within and among ecosystems.
Energy flow - as one organism is eaten, the predator only gets a little bit of the energy and the rest is lost as heat.
Biogeochemical cycling - matter and elements passed from one organism to another through exchange pools,storage areas, and biotic communities.
Describe the aspects of the energy budget for an animal.
Animals have to set off energy to find food and then to reproduce and even have some left over if needed to defend themselves.
Explain why most energy fails to be converted to a usable form when one organism eats another.
90% of energy is lost as heat to the environment due to inefficiencies in consumption and digestion.
Recognize the difference between a food chain and food web.
Food Chain - One population feeds on another within an ecosystem.
Food Web - Interlocking and crossing food chains.
Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of ecological diagrams like food chains, food webs, and pyramids.
Strengths - gives a good overview. Good for analyzing long term.
Weaknesses - Detrial food chains are rarely included in pyramids.
Explain why ecosystems support few carnivores.
If there were too many carnivores, they would eat all the other organisms and species would be unbalanced. especially with the loss of a food source.
Explain how biomass relates to structure of ecological pyramids.
Biomass is based on the number of organisms and that’s how much energy they have and for example, a tree could have multiple catepillars on it and the biomass of herbivores is greater than carnivores.
Define what is meant by a biogeochemical cycle.
The flow of chemical elements and compounds between living organisms and the physical environment. Chemicals passed through a food chain and back into the environment through respiration,decomposition,etc.
Identify the parts and functions of the water, nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon cycles.
Water- Evaporation of water>Condensation and precipitation occurs for the water to go back into the environment.
Nitrogen- Nitrogen Fixation>Denitrification>
Phosphorous- Rocks>land/ocean>plants take it from soil> for bones,teeth,etc.
Carbon- Plants take it in>eaten by consumers>respiration from consumers>atmosphere.
Identify how human activities affect each of the biogeochemical cycles.
Water - we pollute it and acid rain can occur. We use up too much water for it to replenish naturally.
Nitrogen - Fertilizer. Also contains phosphate which runs off into lakes and rivers and results in algal overgrowth and fish kill.
Phosphorus-Mining phosphate ores and using them to make fertilizers, animal feed supplements, and detergents.
Carbon - Industrialization > global warming.
