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human physiology > final exam > Flashcards

final exam Flashcards

1
Q

tube of digestive system

A

mouth
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
about 15 feet long

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2
Q

sphincters

A

rings of muscle
regulate passage of substances from one region to next

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3
Q

upper and lower esophageal sphincters

A

upper: between pharynx and esophagus
lower: where esophagus meets stomach

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4
Q

pyloric sphincter

A

stomach
regulates passage of food out of stomach into small intestine

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5
Q

ileoceal sphincter

A

between small intestine and colon (colon is first part of large intestine)

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6
Q

internal and external anal sphincters

A

inside rectum

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7
Q

salivary glands

A

parotid
sublingual
submandibular
secrete fluid into mouth

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8
Q

pancreas

A

secretes enzymes and bicarbonate into small intestine

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9
Q

liver and gall bladder

A

secrete bile salts and bicarbonate into small intestine

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10
Q

layers of wall of stomach and small intestine

A

mucosal
submucosal
muscle
serosal

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11
Q

mucosal layer

A

highly convoluted
structures extend into lumen
- rugae: stomach
- villi: intestine
invaginations away from lumen
- gastric glands: stomach
- crypts: intestine

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12
Q

neural networks in digestive system

A

submucosal plexus
myentric plexus
both receive sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation

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13
Q

submucosal plexus

A

located in submucosal layer
innervate effector cells within GI system

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14
Q

myentric plexus

A

located in muscle layer
innervate muscle
innervate neurons in submucosal plexus

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15
Q

electrical activity of GI contraction

A

slow waves
spikes

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16
Q

slow waves

A

slow oscillations in membrane potential that occur at different frequencies at different points in the gut
due to changes in activity in Na-K-ATPase
reflect entry of sodium into smooth muscle cell

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17
Q

spike potentials

A

occur when voltage gated calcium and sodium channels open
allow calcium to enter smooth muscle cell
induces contraction

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18
Q

depolarization of GI smooth muscle induced by

A

muscle stretch
acetylcholine
GI hormones

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19
Q

type of GI smooth muscle contractions

A

tonic, sustained
peristaltic
segmental
migrating motor

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20
Q

sustained tonic contractions

A

occur in sphincters
only occasionally relax to allow materials through

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21
Q

peristaltic contractions

A

move material down digestive tract
muscle contracts behind bolus of food and relaxes in front of bolus

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22
Q

segmental contractions

A

occur to mix food
alternate segments contract/relax

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23
Q

migrating motor contractions

A

slow wave contraction that moves from stomach through small intestines between meals

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24
Q

swallowing (Deglutition) stages

A

voluntary
involuntary pharyngeal stage
esophageal stage

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25
Q

mastication

A

chewing creates softened mass
increases surface area that will be exposed to digestive enzymes

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26
Q

voluntary stage of swallowing

A

moving food into pharynx by actions of tongue

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27
Q

involuntary pharyngeal stage of swallowing

A
  1. phaynx receptor stimulate respone with cranial nerves
  2. pharygeal muscles contract
  3. glottis closes (opening between pharynx and larynx)
  4. respiration is inhibited
  5. upper esophageal sphincter relaxes
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28
Q

esophageal stage of swallowing

A

primary peristalsis: continuation of swallowing reflex that began in pharynx
secondary peristalsis: initiated by distention of esophagus, triggers reflex contractions
- afferent send axons through vagus nerve, send efferent outflow to esophagus

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29
Q

musculature of esophagus

A

upper third: striated muscle, controlled by vagus nerve, somatic part (not parasympathetic part)
lower 2/3: smooth muscle, controlled by enteric nervous system (influenced by parasympathetic)

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30
Q

what happens when food enters stomach

A

stimulates receptors
vasovagal reflex induces relaxation of stomach wall
vasovagal reflex: includes vagal afferent and efferent nerves

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31
Q

stomach contractions

A

weak
purpose for mixing food with stomach secretions
antrum contractions are more intense (aid with stomach emptying)
influenced by hormonal factors

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32
Q

stomach contractions sphincter

A

each slow wave forces material through pyloric sphincter into duodenum
pyloric sphincter is normally only partially contracted to allow liquid to move

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33
Q

small intestine motility

A

mixing and propulsive contractions occur
not rapid (12/minute), frequency of slow waves
influenced by distension of intestine –> affects excitability of cells of enteric nervous system

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34
Q

ileocecal valve

A

in small intestine
permits one way movement of materials from small intestine into large ingestine

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35
Q

large intestine motility

A

function: absorb water from residual products and store material until elimination
strong propulsive movements in distal part of colon to force feces into rectum

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36
Q

defecation

A

elimination of wasted triggered by material into rectum
afferent signals

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37
Q

digestive enzymes secretion

A

secreted by exocrine cells
exocrine cells are found in salivary glands and pancreas, and epithelial cells in stomach and small intestine

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38
Q

digestive enzymes

A

proteins
packaged by golgi apparatus into secretory vesicles
stored until secreted by exocytosis
some enzymes become mixed with chyme, other attach to microvilli of epithelial cells

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39
Q

salivary amylase

A

secreted by salivary glands
breaks down starch

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40
Q

lingual lipase

A

secreted by salivary glands
breaks down triglycerides

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41
Q

pepsin

A

secreted as pepsinogen (inactive form)
secreted by stomach
braks down protein

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42
Q

gastric lipase

A

secreted by stomach
breaks down triglycerides

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43
Q

pancreatic amylase

A

secreted by pancreas
breaks down starch

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44
Q

pancreatic lipase

A

secreated by pancrease
breaks down triglycerides

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45
Q

colipase

A

secreted as procolipase (inactive form)
breaks down triglycerides

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46
Q

phospholipase

A

secreted as prophospholipase (inactive form)
secreted by pancreas
breaks down phospholipids

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47
Q

trypsin

A

secreted as trypsinogen (inactive form)
secreted by pancreas
breaks down proteins

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48
Q

chymotrypsin

A

secreted as chymotrupsinogen (inactive form)
secreted by pancreas
breaks down proteins

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49
Q

enteropeptidase

A

secreted by small intestine
activates trypsin

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50
Q

disaccharides

A

secreted by small intestine
breaks down sucrose, maltose, lactose

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51
Q

enopeptidase/exopepidase

A

secreted by small intestine
cleaves interior peptide bonds

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52
Q

mucus secretion

A

secreted by specialized cells in stomach and small intestine
stomach: mucus cells
intestine: goblect cells
parasympathetic innervation

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53
Q

bile secretion

A

secreted by liver cells into hepatic ducts that lead into gall bladder
during meal, contraction of gall bladder sends bile into duodenum through common bile duct

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54
Q

bile composition

A

non enzyme solution
bile salts that aid in fat digestion
bile pigments (bilirubin)
cholesterol

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55
Q

carbohydrate absorption

A

amylase breaks starch into disaccharides
maltase, sucrase, lactase, break discaccharides into monosaccharides
glucose crosses useing 2 ATP
rest facilitated diffusion

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56
Q

protein absorption and digestion

A

pepsin and proteases break proteins into amino acids
amino peptidase break small peptides to amino acids
cross using 2 ATP

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57
Q

fat digestion and secretion

A

bile salts emulsify with fat droplets and lipase convert it to miscelles which diffuse directly
in membrane, converted to chylomicron transported into intersitium because it is to big to be absorbed into the capollary so it moves into lymph

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58
Q

components of defense system

A

physical barriers
non specific immune system
aquired immune system

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59
Q

leukocytes

A

white blood cells
effector cells of immune system
derived from bone marrow stem cells
2 classes: myeoblasts and lymphod progeitors

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60
Q

leukocytes developed from myeoblasts

A

monocytes: tissue macrophage
granulocytes: neutrophills, basophills, eosinophills
dendritic cells

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61
Q

leukocytes developed from lymphoid cells

A

lymphocytes:
b-lymphocytes
t-lymphocytes
natural killer cells

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62
Q

innate immune system recognition

A

PAMPs and DAMPs recognize PRR
causes macrophages to release cytokines

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63
Q

phagocytic cells: Macrophage

A

found in tissue at resting stage
cytokine release activates them and increased their phagocytic activity

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64
Q

phagocytic cell: neutrophill

A

migrate from blood stream into tissue at site of infection because they are attracted to cytokines

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65
Q

movement of leukocytes (Neutrophills)

A

margination: accumulate near vessel wall
attachment: attach to vessel wall
diapedesis: goes through wall
chemotaxis: follow chemical gradient out of circulation

66
Q

phagocyte recognition

A

sometime PAMPs/DAMPs
usually oposnins

67
Q

opsonins

A

molecules made by body
bind to pathogens and target them for phagocytosis (opsonization)

68
Q

NK cells

A

punch holes in cell membrane, causing them to break apart (Perforins)
stimulate apoptosis by releasing fragmentins

69
Q

inflammation response

A

tissue damage releases histamine from mast cells
causes:
arteriol vasodilation –> increases blood flow
increased capillary permeability –> movement of fluid and proteins to interstital space

70
Q

complement protein system

A

composed of proteins that function together to destroy invading cells
proteins made by liver

71
Q

C3 protein

A

complement protein
constantly being broken down into fragments
fragments bind to cell surface protein –> promotes formation of membrane attack complex

72
Q

membrane attak complex

A

pokes holes in cell killing it

73
Q

Decay accelerating factor

A

accelerates breakdown of membrane bound protein
protectin destorys MAC
way for normal cells not to be destoryed by MAC

74
Q

antibodies

A

bounded to cells that target cells for destruction by MAC

75
Q

complement protein actions

A

destroy cells: MACA
opsonins: target pathogens for phagocytosis
chemoattractants: attract other immune system cells to area
pro-inflammatory

76
Q

aquired immunity

A

directed to specific foreign substance
mediated by lymphocytes

77
Q

cognate antigen/epitope

A

proteins made by lymphocytes that allow them to respond to only one type of foreign substance
epitope: specific portion of foreing molecule that it binds to
antibody is specific for one particular epitope
different antibodies can recognize same antigen

78
Q

B lymphocytes

A

make antibodies
mediate humoral immunity

79
Q

T lymphocytes

A

need direct cell-cell contact
mediate cellular immunity

80
Q

lymphocyte maturation

A

lymphocyte binds to cognate antigen
lymphocyte begins to divide (Clonal expansion)
divides into effector cells and memory cells

81
Q

effector/memory cells

A

effector cells: produce immune response
memory cells: produce rapid/larger response after re-exposure to antigen

82
Q

B-lymphocyte and antibodies

A

B-cell receptor binds to cognate antigen for 1st time: matures into plasma cells (effector) and memory cells
2nd exposure: response is more rapid and profound

83
Q

antibody structure

A

pair of identical heavy peptide chains
pair of identical light peptide chains
Fc: constant region of heavy chain, specifies general class of antibody
Fab: antigen recognition portion, heavy and light chain

84
Q

antibodies isotypes

A

IgG: dominant type in circulation, good opsonin
IgA: dominant in mucus linings
IgM: initial form made by b-cells, switches during maturation
IgE: associated with allergies, acts on mast cells
IgD: rare, associated with B cell receptors

85
Q

what do antibodies do

A

opsonization and NK cell activity (IgG)
complement activation
agglutination: neutralizae bioactive proteins
IgE: release histamine from mast cells

86
Q

T-lymphocytes and immunity

A

responsible for cell mediated immunity
activated when T cell receptor interacts with antigen

87
Q

T cell recognition

A

can only recognize antigen if it is bound to MHC
major histocompatibility complex

88
Q

MHC (major histocompatibility complex)

A

distinct proteins found on cell surfaces
MHC I and MHC II

89
Q

MHC class I

A

found on the surface of all nucleated cells (all cells except RBC)
present on cell surface of abnormal proteins

90
Q

MHC class II

A

produced only by macrophages, dendritic cells, and B lymphocytes
phagocytize foreing matter, breakdown products presented back to cell surface
present abnormal proteins found in interstitial space

91
Q

cytoxic T cells (Tc)

A

attack and destroy cells expressing cognate antigen presented by MHC class I
release molecules that poke holes in cells and induce apoptosis

92
Q

helper T cells (Th)

A

activated when encoutner antigen presented by MHC class II
activated Th release cytokines
aids

93
Q

bacterial infection response

A
  • complement system (mannose), MAC, opsonization
  • phagocytosis
  • no cytoxic cells
94
Q

acute phase response

A

systemic response to infection
energetically demanding, cause feeling sick

95
Q

acute phase proteins

A

c-reactive protein (CRP): opsonin
serum amyloid A (SAA): protein that recruits immune cells and induces enzymes that breakdown extracellular matrix

96
Q

immune neural endocrine interactions

A

immune system: release cytokines
endocrine system: release hormones
nervous system: release neurotransmitters

97
Q

allergies

A

non-pathogenic antigens
involve IgE, break down mast cells and release cytokines (Histamine)

98
Q

autoimmune disease

A

mistakenly identifies something as foreing
ex: type 1

99
Q

esophagus
secretions and functions

A

secrete: mucus
function: move food to stomach by persistalsis

100
Q

stomach
secretions anf functions

A

secrete: HCL, pepsins, mucus
functions: store, mix digest enzymes

101
Q

pancreas
secretions anf functions

A

secrete: enyzmes and bicarbonate
function: digestion, neutralize HCl that will enter small intestine from the stoamch

102
Q

liver
secretions and functions

A

secrete: bile salts, bicarbonate
function: neutralize HCl, secrete bile

103
Q

gallbladder
secretions and functions

A

dont secrete
function: store and concentrate bile between meals

104
Q

small intestine
secretions and functions

A

secrete: enzymes, salt, water, mucus
function: mix contents

105
Q

large intestine
secretions and functions

A

secrete: mucus
function: store undigested matter

106
Q

GALT

A

gut associated lymphoid tissue
found in mucosal layer

107
Q

stomach structure

A

fundus: top portion, receives and stores chyme
body: secretes mucus, acid, pepsinogen
antrum: distal third part, more intense contractions, aid in stomach emptying, secretes mucus, acid, pepsin

108
Q

regulation of digestive system

A

enteric nervous sytem
sympathetic/parasympathetic input
hormones
paracrine agents

109
Q

short vs long loop responses

A

short loop: involve just enteric nervous system
long loop: involve CNS and autonomic input to enteric NS

110
Q

phases of digestion

A

cephalic
gastric
intestinal

111
Q

cephalic phase

A

seeing/smelling food –> prepares body to process food (feedforward)
increase parasympathetic activity causes:
- G cells to secrete gasstrin and
- pariteal and chief cells to release acid and pepsinogen

  • prepare stomach to receive chyme
  • increased vagal nerve actviity to stomach promotes
    gastric acid and pepsinogen secretion
112
Q

saliva/secretion

A
  • starts process of digestion (cephalic)
  • contains amylase, lysoszyme, salivary lipase, mucins
113
Q

gastric acid secretion

A

parietal cells
in response fro increased vagal nerve activity to stomach

114
Q

pepsinogen secretion

A

chief cells
in response to increased vagal nerve activity to stomach
converted to pepsin in acid environemtn in stomach

115
Q

gastric phase

A
  • gastric motility/secretion continues
  • initiated when food enters stomach –> stretch
    stomach wall
  • also initiated by presence of presence and increase
    pH
    short and long loop
116
Q

gastric secretions

A
  • HCl
  • pepsinogen
  • mucus
  • gastrin
  • somatostatin
117
Q

HCl secretion

A

paritetal cells in stomach by H,K-ATPase on lumenal memmbrane
- HCl reduces stomach pH
- parietal cells have intrinsic factor (protein absorb B12)

118
Q

mucus secretion

A

by mucus cells
located near mouth of gastric pits

119
Q

gastrin

A
  • hormone, secreted into blood
  • stimulated by vagal input to G cells
  • stimulates paritetal cells to release acid
  • stimulates enterochromaffin cells to release histamine
    ACID INHIBITS GASTRIN RELEASE (negativ feedback)
120
Q

stomach motility

A

empty: volume is 50 ml
- lower esophageal sphincter is closed, and pyloric sphincter is partially closed
when swallowing:
- lower esophageal sphincter opens (allows food in)
- pyloric sphincter closes tighter

121
Q

stomach contraction control

A

frequency: intrinsic property of muscles
strength: neural and hormonal input

122
Q

intestinal phase

A
  • begins with delivety of acidic chyme to small intestine –> causes duodenum to release secretin
    -fat in duednum stimulates ecretion of CCK
123
Q

secretin

A

hormone secreted into blood (Not intestine)
inhibits gastric acid secretion and motility
stimulates bicarbonate secretion from pancreas to neutralize chyme acid

124
Q

cholecystokinin (CKK)

A
  • secreted because of fat in duodenum
  • inhibits gastric acid secretion and motility
  • stimulate pancreatic enzyme secretion
  • contract gall bladder which releases bile
125
Q

bicarbonate secretion

A

secreted from pancrease
in response to secretin
neutralizes gastric acid

126
Q

bile secretion

A

secreted from liver containing bile salts
stored in gall bladder
fat secretes CKK –> CKK contracts gall bladder –> bile secreted into intestine

127
Q

incretins

A

hormones released by small intestine
stimulate insulin secretion from pancreas
feedforward response

128
Q

glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP1)

A

incretin
secreted by intestinal cells in response to nutrients and intestinal stretch
stimulate insulin secretion from pancreas

129
Q

gatric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP)

A

incretin
released by presence of chyme in small intestin
stimulates insulin secretion
inhibits gastrin release (negative feedback)

130
Q

sphincter of oddi

A

located in second part of duodenum
CCK and secretin

131
Q

gastric acid and ulcers

A

gastric acid eat hole in lining of stomach
usually protected by mucus
treatment: proton pump inhibitors
- histamine antagonists

132
Q

absorptive state: glucose

A

muscle: stored as glycogen
liver: stored ag glycogen, convert glucose to triglycerides, and VLDL
adipocytes: use glucose to form glycerol phosphate and fatty acids, stored as triglycerides
also store fatty acids made in liver

133
Q

lipoprotein lipase

A

enzyme located in capillaries to fat
break down VLDL

134
Q

absorptive state: amino acids

A

taken up by new cells for protein synthesis
metabolized to keto acids
converted to fatty acids

135
Q

absorptive state: fats

A

triglycerides in chylomicrons broken down and stored

136
Q

postabsorptive state

A

glucose production
- glycogenolysis: breakdown glycogen to glucose
- lipolysis: breakdown lipids
- gluconeogenesis: synthesize glucose

137
Q

switching between states

A

signals insulin and glucagon secreted from pancreas
secreted by Iselts of Langerhans

138
Q

Islets of Langerhans

A
  • cell clusters in pancreas
  • make up 1% of pancreas (rest is exocrine cells)
    4 cell types:
    beta cells (70%): secrete insulin
    alpha cells (20%): secrete glucagon
139
Q

insulin in absorptive state

A

-promote glucose uptake and storage
- promote aminio acid uptake and protein synthesis
insulin stimulates glucose uptake by increasing insertion of glucose transporters in cell membane

140
Q

control of insulin secretion

A
  • high glucose level detected by beta cells
  • increase GLP1 and GIP
  • increased para
  • decreased symp
  • decreased epinephrine secretion
141
Q

glucagon secretion

A

in response to:
- increased amino acids
- decreased glucose
- increased sympathetic activity
- increased epi secretion
effect n adipose tissue:
- increased lipolysis
- decrease triglyceride synthesis
liver response:
- increased glycogenolysis, glyconeogensis

142
Q

postabsorptive state stimulated by

A
  • sympathetic NS
  • adrenall medulla releasing epinephrine
    this all stimulates glucose being produced for energy use
  • cortisol p
143
Q

cortisol and glucose mobilization

A

promotes by increasing liver gluconeogensis and adipose tissue lipolysis
promoted protein brakdown in muscle
reduces glucose uptake
- secreted by adrenal gland, regulated by pituitary gland

144
Q

cholesterol types

A

chylomicrons
VLDL
LDL
HDL

145
Q

chylomicrons

A

made in intestine
absorbed from GI tract

146
Q

VLDL

A

made by liver
target transport to adipose tissue

147
Q

LDL

A

bad cholesterol
transport cholesterol and fat to blood vessel walls
causes atherosclerosis

148
Q

HDL

A

good cholesterol
transport cholesterol to liver for secretion with bile

149
Q

metabolic rate

A

rate of energy utilization Kcal/hr
carb and proteins: 4
fat: 9
measured by oxygen consumption, 1L of o2 is 4.8 kcal

150
Q

basal metabolic rate

A

individual baseline rate of metabolism
measured at fasting
determined by thyroid hormones T3 and T4

151
Q

what causes hunger

A
  • increased glucose
  • increased insulin
  • leptin
  • ghrelin
  • stretch receptors
    – increased temp
152
Q

leptin

A

hormone released by adipose cells
signal abdunant fat stores

153
Q

ghrelin

A

hormone
released by empty stomach
promot food intake

154
Q

mucus neck cell
secretion
stimulis
function

A

secrete: mucus
stimuli: tonic secretion
function: physical barrier between lumen and epithelium

secrete: bicarbonate
stimuli: secreted with mucus
function: buffers gastric acid to prevent damage

155
Q

parietal cells
secretion
stimulis
function

A

secrete: gastric acid (HCl)
function: activates pepsin

secrete: intrinsic factor
function: complexes with B12 to permit absorption

stimuli for both: acetylcholine, gastrin, histamine

156
Q

enterochromaffin cell

A

secrete: histamine (Paracrine)
stimuli: acetylcholine, gastrin
function: stimulates gastric acid secretion

157
Q

chief cells

A

secrete: pepsinogen to digest proteins
secrete: gastric lipase to digest fat
stimuli for both: acetylcholine, secretin

158
Q

D cells

A

secrete: somatostatin (endocrine)
stimuli: acid in stomach
function: inhibit gastric acid secretion

159
Q

G cells

A

secrete: gastrin (endocrine)
stimuli: Ach, peptides, amino acids
function: stimulate gastric acid secretion

160
Q

gastric acid secretion pathway

A
  1. food initate cephalix reflexes, secretes gastrin, histamin, and acid
  2. gastrin stimulates acid secretion by parietal cells
  3. acid stimulates short reflex secretion of pepsinogen
  4. stomatostatin releases H+ (neg. feedback), releases pepsin
161
Q

gastric acid secretion during digestion phase

A
  1. cephalic:
    - sight/smell
    - parasympathetic nerves to enteric NS
    - increase HCl
  2. gastric phase
    - increase peptides, decrease H+
    - long and short refelxes
    - increase HCl
  3. intestinal
    - increase H+, osmolarity
    - long and shortreflexes
    - decrease HCl
162
Q

NPY and agouti related protein

A

increase food intake
co expressed in hypothalamus

human physiology (5 decks)

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