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human physiology > exam 3 > Flashcards

exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

gas exchange in respiration

A

exchange 1: atmosphere to lung (ventilation)
exchange 2: lung to blood
transport: transport gases in blood
exchange 3: blood to cells

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2
Q

anatomy of airway

A

pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli

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3
Q

anatomy of airway

A

pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli

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4
Q

pharynx

A

passageway for ingested materials and air

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5
Q

trachea

A

windpipe
flexible tube help by c-shape rings of cartilage

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6
Q

larynx

A

contains the vocal cords
bands of connective tissue tightened or loosed by muscles to create sound when air passes

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7
Q

bronchioles

A

small collapsible passageways
smooth muscle walls
branch until the reach the exchange surface (Alveoli)
total cross sectional diameter increases as they branch

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8
Q

goblet cells

A

secreted by goblet cells
contain ciliated epithelial cells which move the mucus toward the pharynx

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9
Q

alveoli

A

exchange surface of lungs
where O2 and CO2 move between air and blood

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10
Q

type 1 alveoli

A

thin gas exchange cells
majority of alveolar surface
close association with pulmonary capillaries to permit gas exchange
0.2 um thick

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11
Q

type 2 alveoli cells

A

produce surfactant
substance that acts to ease expansion of lungs during inspiration

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12
Q

elastin fibers

A

connective tissue fibers between alveoli
contribute to elastic recoil

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13
Q

pleural sac

A

membrane surrounding lungs
pleural tissue held by fluid
holds lungs against thoracic wall by intrapleural pressure

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14
Q

intrapleural vs interpulmonary pressure

A

intrapleural is always less

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15
Q

inspiration

A

external intercostal contacts
diaphragm contracts
chest wall and lungs expand
sterum moves up

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16
Q

expiration

A

passive! due to elastic recoil
external intercostal relaxes
diaphragm relaxes
chest cavity and lungs contract
ribs and sternum decompress

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17
Q

active expiration

A

internal intercostal muscles contract
abdominal muscles contract

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18
Q

alveolar (interpulmonary) pressure during inspiration and expiration

A

low during inspiration
high during expiration

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19
Q

resistance effect

A

decrease alveolar pressure during inspiration
increase alveolar pressure during expiration
increases energy required for breathing (normally 3%)
decrease compliance

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20
Q

lung compliance

A

change in lung volume/change in transpulmonary pressure

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21
Q

transpulmonary pressure

A

alveolar (interpulmonary) pressure - intrapleural pressure

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22
Q

what affects compliance

A

intrinsic elastic properties
surfactant

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23
Q

what affects compliance

A

intrinsic elastic properties
surfactant

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24
Q

surfactant

A

made of phospholipids and proteins
secreted by type 2 alveoli cells
decrease surface tension!

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25
Q

surfactant effect on compliance

A

decrease surface tension
increase compliance
easier for lungs to expand
greater effect in smaller alveoli which equalizes pressure between large and small alveoli

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26
Q

tidal volume

A

volume of gas that moves in and out
500 ml per breath

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27
Q

functional residual capacity

A

2100 ml
volume left in system at end of expiration

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28
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

extra 1100 we can force out using expiratory muscles

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29
Q

residual volume

A

remaining 1000 ml left after we force out extra air

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30
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

3000 ml air we can bring in if we breath deeper

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31
Q

total maximal inspiratio volume

A

3500
500 from normal tidal volume
extra 3000 from inspiratory reserve volume

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32
Q

vital capacity

A

total maximalvolume we can move in and out
4600
500 + 3000 + 1100

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33
Q

forced expiratory volume

A

volume actively expired in 1 second
typically 80% of todal
goes down as airway resistance increases

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34
Q

minute ventilation

A

tidal volume x breathing rate
amount of air moved in and out per minute

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35
Q

alveolar ventilation

A

takes into account dead space of tidal volume (150 ml)
amount of fresh air brought to alveoli per minute
= (tidal volume-dead volume) x breathing rate

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36
Q

respiratory quotient

A

1 molecule O2 consumed = 0.8 CO2 generated

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37
Q

normal alveolar ventilation per minute

A

approximately 12 breaths/min * 350 ml = 4200 ml
21% of volume is O2=882 ml/min of oxygen entering lungs

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38
Q

increase pCO2

A

dilate bronchioles
constrict pulmonary arteries
dilate systemic arteries

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39
Q

increase pO2

A

constrict bronchioles
dilate pulmonary arteries
constrict systemic arteries

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39
Q

gas exchange occurs by

A

simple diffusion
proportional to: concentration gradient, surface area
inversely proportional to: thickness, distance

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40
Q

atmospheric o2 alveolar pressure

A

160 mmHg vs 100 mmHg
difference because: dead volume, rapid diffusion between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries

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41
Q

normal arterial blood values

A

pO2= 95
pCO2 = 40
pH = 7.4

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42
Q

normal venous blood values

A

pO2 = 40
pCO2 = 46
pH = 7.37

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43
Q

what happens to arterial oxygen

A

2% dissolves in plasma
98% binds to hemogobin

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44
Q

exchange between alveoli and capillaries

A

occurs within first third of capillary length

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45
Q

hypoxia

A

less oxygen

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46
Q

asthma

A

causes hypoxia
increased airway resistance decreases alveolar ventilation

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47
Q

pulmonary edema

A

causes hypoxia
fluid in interstitial space increases diffusion distance

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48
Q

fibrotic lung tissue

A

causes hypoxia
thickened alveolar membrane slows gas exchange

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49
Q

emphysema

A

causes hypoxia
destruction of alveoli decreases surface area

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50
Q

binding of oxygen and hemoglobin

A

1 gram of hemoglobin combines with 134 ml of O2
each of 4 subunits can be oxygenated or deoxygenated
reversible, fast
Hb + O2 <-> HbO2

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51
Q

percent oxygenated substrate

A

percent of hemoglobin saturation of oxygen

52
Q

hemoglobin concentration

A

150 g/liter
15%

53
Q

what happens to CO2 in blood

A

7% remains dissolved
70% converted to bicarbonate and H+
23% binds to Hb

54
Q

CO2 and Hb binding

A

forms cabaminohemoglobin

55
Q

Hb-O2 curve shift to right

A

curve shifs to the right causes more O2 to be delivered to the tissue

56
Q

what causes right shift of curve

A

increase of DPG
decrease pH
increase temp

57
Q

what causes decrease pH which leads to curve shift to right

A

skeletal muscles are more active
acids build up of lactic acid
decrease pH
increase oxygen delivery

58
Q

regulation of inspiratory muscles

A

phrenic nerve innervates diagphram
intercostal nerve innervates external intercostal
originate from cervical spinal cord (C3-C5)

59
Q

what controls the nerves innervating inspiratory muscles

A

central rhythm generator located in medulla

60
Q

central rhythm generator

A

generates oscillitaroy activity
which excites DRG and VRG

61
Q

DRG and VRG

A

dorsal/ventral respiratory group
neurons that innervate motor neurons that control respiratory muscle
DRG fires I neurons
VRG fires both

62
Q

pre-Botzinger nucleus

A

found in VRG
fires I neurons or E neurons

63
Q

I neurons vs E neurons

A

I neurons: active during inspiration, silent during expiration
E neurons: silent during inspiration, active during expiration

64
Q

where are peripheral chemoreceptor sites

A

cartoid bodies
aortic bodies

65
Q

peripheral chemoreceptors respond to

A

changes in arterial blood
- significant decrease Po2 (Hypoxia)
- increased H+ (metabolid acidosis)
- increased pCO2 (respiratory acidosis)

66
Q

central chemoreceptors

A

medulla oblongta
respond to changes in brain extracellular fluid
- increased pCO2 associated with changes in H+

67
Q

blood brain barrier

A

CO2 can cross
H+ cant cross

68
Q

peripheral vs central chemorceptors

A

low O2 only affects peripheral chemoreceptors
peripheral: increase arterial H+
central: increase ECF H+

69
Q

what happens after chemorceptors fire

A

fire medulla inspiratory neurons (DRG and VRG)
fire neurons to diagphragm and inspiratory intercostals (phrenic and intercostal)
causes diagphragm and external intercostal to contract
breathign!

70
Q

effect of exercise on ventilation

A

increase minute ventilation
decrease arterial co2
increase arterial H+
O2 stays same
feed forward mechanism because minute ventilation changes before others

71
Q

sneezing

A

receptors in nose and pharynx stimulate deep inspiration and forced expiration

72
Q

coughing

A

receptors in trachea stimulate deep inspiration and forced expiration

73
Q

speech

A

requires fine control of respiratory muscles

74
Q

2,3DPG

A

compound made from intermediate in glycolysis
increased levels of DPG in red blood cells with hypoxia
increased DPG shifts curve to right

75
Q

breathing at high altitude

A

barometric pressure is low
alveolar O2 is low
hard to get O2

76
Q

increase red blood cell count

A

if there is low o2=hypoxia
so kidneys release erythropoiten to produce erythrocytes
which increases hematocrit and blood volume

77
Q

great increase in pulmonary ventilation

A

if there is low o2=hypoxia
so small increase in pulmonary ventilation
but kidney normalizes pH by secreting bicarbonate ion which increases ventilation by a lot

78
Q

increase cellular metabolism

A

if there is low o2=hypoxia
but produce more cells, more mitochondria, more energy

79
Q

increased vascularity of tissue

A

if there is low o2=hypoxia
but increase # of capillaries to make more o2
which also increases surface area for gas exchange between alveoli and blood

80
Q

ways to acclimate to low po2

A

increase cellular metabolism
increase # RBC
increase vascularity of tissue
large increase of pulmonary ventilation
change O2-Hb curve

81
Q

change O2=Hb curve

A

low O2=hypoxia=curve shift to left
over time 2,3-DPG brings curve back to the right

82
Q

function of kidneys

A

regulate blood pressure, osmolality, electrolyte concentration, erythrocyte
maintain ph and h2o
excrete metabolic waste
produce glucose

83
Q

urinary system

A

kidney
ureter
bladder
urethra

84
Q

kidney anatomy

A

nephrons
bowmans capsule/proximal distal tubules: inner medulla
loop of henle/collecting ducts: outer cortex

85
Q

nephrons

A

1 million per kidney
juxtamedullary (20%) long loop
cortical (80%)

86
Q

renal autoregulation

A

myogenic mechnisms
tubuloglomerular feedback

87
Q

path of urine

A

glomerulus
bowmans capsule
proximal convulted tubule
proximal straight tube
descending limb
ascending limb
distal convoluted tubule
cortical collecting duct
medullary collecting duct
renal pelvis

88
Q

arterioles and capillaries of nephron

A

afferent arterioles
to glomerular capllaries
transition to efferent arteriole
to peritubular capillaries

89
Q

excretion formular

A

filtration-reabsorption+secretion

90
Q

filtration equation

A

net filtration pressure x Kf (filtration constant)
net filtration pressure: hydrostatic and osmotic pressure
filtration constant:how leaky capillary is

91
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

blood pressure

92
Q

osmotic pressure

A

due to proteins being in plamsa but not in bowmans capsule

93
Q

layers of filtration

A

1.capillary endothelial cells: more holes, coarsest level
2.basal lamina: noncellular matrix between endothelial cells
3.podocytes:filtration sites, finest level, specialized epithelial cells that line glomerular capillaries

94
Q

GFR

A

normal glomerular filtration rate
125 ml/min=180 L/day
= V * Us/Ps
only works for a substance filtered but not secreted

95
Q

clearance rate

A

how much blood is excreted (renal plasma flow) (600mL)
totally reabsorbed: clearance rate =0

96
Q

filtration fraction

A

= GFR/RPF

97
Q

reabsorption

A

most occurs in proximal tubule
regulated occurs in distal segment of nephron (collecting duct)

98
Q

reabsorption pathway

A

transport molecules from lumen of tubules
across epithelial cells
into interstitial space
into peritubular capillaries

99
Q

apical vs basolateral membrane

A

apical(Lumen: face tubular lumen, highly convoluted, large surface area
basolateral: face renal interstitial fluid

100
Q

transport maximum

A

due to limited transporters or transport time
maximum rate at which a membrane can transport substance

101
Q

Na+ reabsorption

A

enters lumen membrane through concentration gradient
crosses basolateral membrane by secondary conc. gradietn

102
Q

glucose reabsorption

A

sodium enters lumen membrane down conc. gradient, SGLT protein pulls glucose with it
glucose diffuses basolateral membrane using GLUT
Na crosses baoslateral by secondary active transport

103
Q

impermeability of water

A

collecting duct is impermeable to water
ascending limb: not permeable to water, permeable to sodium
descending limb: not permeable to sodium, permeable to water

104
Q

permeability of collecting duct regulation

A

aquaporin 2 on apical membrane
ADH released into blood stream and acts on receptors on basolateral membrane
ADH binding activates cAMP
fusion of vesicle with membrane: insert AQ2 on apical membrane

105
Q

where is ADH made

A

hypothalamus

106
Q

osmosensors

A

located in hypothalamus
in close proximity to ADH

107
Q

diabetes insipidus

A

central: problem with ADH syntheis or secretion
nephrogenic: problem with renal response to ADH

108
Q

deeper into kidney

A

interstitial fluid becomes more hypertonic

109
Q

plasma osmolarity and vasopressin

A

osmolarity increases
vasopressin (adh)increases
urine volume decreases
uring osmolarity increases

110
Q

ADH secretion

A

decreased blood pressure
decreased atrial stretch
increased osmolarity
all increase vasopressin (ADH)
which inserts water pores
increase water reabsorption to convserve water

111
Q

Na+ reabsorption

A

most in proximal tubule (2/3)
least in collecting tubule
none in descending loop
main transporter of apical membrane is Na/K/2Cl transporter

112
Q

aldosterone

A

acts on collecting tubule
regulated by angiotensin 2 which is controlled by renin
aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption and K+secretion

113
Q

what controls renin

A

increase renal sympathetic nerves (b-adrenergic receptor)
decrease atrial presure
decrease GFR

114
Q

control of plasma osmolality

A

regulating how much water there is to dilute or concnetrate solutes

115
Q

mechanisms to regulate water

A

control of water loss by kidneys
control of water intake (thirst)

116
Q

aldosterone

A

steroid hormone
released from adrenal cortex
acts on collecting ducts to promote na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion

117
Q

absence of aldosterone

A

2% of filtered Na+ is excreted (a lot)

118
Q

presence of aldosterone

A

all Na+ is reabsorbed

119
Q

how does aldosterone control reabsorption of Na+

A

synthesizes new Na,K,ATPase molecule in basolateral membrane
stimulates insertion of Na+ channels in apical membrane
increases transcription/translation

120
Q

what controls release of aldosterone

A

angiotensin acts on aldosterone releasing cells of adrenal cortex

121
Q

renin

A

released from juxtaglomerular cells
lie next to macula densa
surround afferent and efferent arteriole

122
Q

atrial natriuertic hormone

A

released from right atrium in response to stretch
promotes Na+ excretion
decreases Na+ reabsorption
increases GFR
inhibits renin secretion, aldosterone, and ADH

123
Q

potassium homeostasis

A

regulation occurs by secretion at level of cortical collecting ducts
regulated by aldosterone because it increases Na/K channels, promote K+ secretion

124
Q

calcium homeostasis

A

conc. in ECF is low
regulated at collecting duct
controlled via an endocrine feedback mechanism
controlled by PTH
low Ca = secrete PTH = increase Ca
promote Ca reabsorption

125
Q

H+ homeostasis

A

buffer
respiration
kidneys

126
Q

osmotic diuretics

A

ex: mannitol
provide large amount of filtered but not reabsorbed solute –> get excreted and bring water with them

127
Q

aldosterone antagonists

A

ex: spironolactone
block aldosterone receptors which promotes Na+ excretion, bring water wih it

128
Q

loop diuretic

A

ex: furosemide
inhibit Na+ transporter

human physiology (5 decks)

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