FINAL EXAM Flashcards
Know types of olfactory receptors
- odorant receptors (ORs)
- vomeronasal receptors (V1Rs and V2Rs)
- trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs)
- formyl peptide receptors (FPRs)
- guanylyl cyclase GC-D
Oxytocin
released during intimate moments such as nutriting behavior, hugging, or sex, known as the bonding hormone
Vasopressin
increase the absorption of sodium in the kidneys, holds onto water in the kidneys)
Changes behaviors
Know posterior pituitary hormones
Oxytocin
Vasopressin
Know anterior pituitary hormones
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
- Controls secretions of the adrenal cortex
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Controls secretions of the thyroid gland
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Controls secretions of the gonads
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Controls secretions of the gonads
Prolactin
- Controls secretions of the mammary glands
Growth hormone (GH)
- Promotes growth throughout the body
Know about Kluver-Bucy syndrome
rare behavioral impairment that is associated with damage to both of the anterior temporal lobes (hippocampus + amygdala) of the brain.
It causes individuals to put objects in their mouths and engage in inappropriate sexual behavior.
Know about melatonin release
- Secreted from the pineal gland during the dark phase of the light-dark cycle
- Causes sleepiness
Know about when the different stages of sleep occur
Four stages of non-REM sleep
Stage 1 -> Shallow
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4 -> Deep/slow-wave/critical
We go through one cycle of Non-REM sleep before we hit REM sleep for the first time. After this, we get REM every 90 minutes. REM density happens towards the later part of our sleep cycle
Characteristics of schizophrenia
- Delusions: beliefs that distort reality
- Hallucination: distorted perceptions
- Disorganized speech
- Disorganized behavior or excessive agitation
- Catatonic behavior: not moving, stiff/rigid posture,
- Negative symptoms: blunted emotions or loss of interest and drive, the absence of some normal response
- Cognitive symptoms, quite impairing, ex: attention, memory, executive functioning
Neural Circuit for Emotional Memories
Amygdala is critical for emotional memory
Neural Circuit for Implicit Memories
Basal ganglia, ventral thalamus, substantia nigra, premotor cortex
Neural Circuit for Explicit Memories
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Entorhinal cortex
Parahippocampal cortex
Perirhinal cortex
Know brain structures associated with memory
- Cerebellum (general)
- Hippocampus (stm to ltm)
- amygdala (emotional)
- basal ganglia and premotor cortex (implicit memory)
- Hippocampus, amygdala, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex (explicit)
Know which neurotransmitter is involved with strengthening synaptic connections
High estrogen -> more dendritic spines in hippocampus
High testosterone -> more dendritic spines in neocortex
Overall glutamate supports the formation of synaptic connections
Know what the temporal association cortex does
function: recognition and identification of stimuli that are attended to, particularly complex stimuli.
damage to this area creates visual agnosia
Review the Wisconsin card-sorting task
Used to measure higher-level cognitive processes
Involves the prefrontal cortex
Know differences between the brain structures of men and women
- Females have a larger prefrontal and frontal cortex, superior temporal cortex, lateral parietal cortex, and insula.
- Males have larger ventral temporal and occipital regions.
- Women have higher verbal ability. More white matter.
- Men have higher spatial intelligence. More grey matter.
Know contralateral neglect
Define: Ignoring a part of the body on the side opposite that of the brain injury
Damage to the parietal association cortex
produces contralateral neglect
Neglect is particularly severe in right-hemisphere damage
Review lewy bodies
Define: a buildup of abnormal protein particles in their brain tissue causes by the decay of brain tissues
Composed of alphasinculean
Found in the brain tissue of people with Parkinson disease (PD) and Alzheimer disease (AD).
Review the blood-brain barrier
capillaries in the brain consisting of astrocytes and endothelial cells (tight junctions)
Review multiple sclerosis
Characterized by loss of myelin in motor and sensory nerves
- Oligodendroglia cells that form the myelin sheath are destroyed
Relapses and remissions are common
- Brain imaging reveals discrete lesions
Higher the latitude on the earth, the more likely the person will get MS -> MS latitude gradient
Proposed causes include bacterial infection, virus (epstein-barr virus) , environmental factors including pesticides, an immune response of the CNS< misfolded proteins, lack of vitamin D
MS is an autoimmune disease
Myasthenia gravis
a chronic autoimmune, neuromuscular disease that causes weakness in the skeletal muscles that worsens after periods of activity and improves after periods of rest.
Neurotransmitter: ACETYLCHOLINE
Know addiction pathway
Mesolimic Dopamine Pathway
Ventral tegmental area -> nucleus accumbens -> prefrontal cortex
Review stress response and how it is inhibited
HPA
- Controls the production and release of hormones related to stress
- Stress stimulates HPA to secrete corticotropin hormone to tell the pituitary gland to releases cortisol
Hippocampus
- shuts off amygdala and regulates cortisol
Patient GH
- Damage to the right parietal lobe
- Difficulty with copying drawing, assembling puzzles, and navigating around familiar places
Patient MM
- Damage to the left parietal lobe
- Difficulty with language, copying movements, reading, arithmetic, generating names of objects or animals
Patient HM
- Scoville performed bilaterally and simultaneously removed the hippocampus and amygdala other medial temporal lobe structures
- Afterwards, he can’t convert STM to LTM
- Impairment to explicit memories but he could perform implicit memory tests
- LTM before the surgery remained intact
- LEARNED THAT HIPPOCAMPUS DOES NOT STORE LONG TERM MEMORIES
Patient JK
- Impaired implicit memory with intact explicit memory
- Developed parkinson disease in his mid-70s
- DAMAGE to the basal ganglia
- Impaired ability to perform tasks that he had done all his life
Review visual agnosias
a condition in which a person can see but cannot recognize or interpret visual information
Occurs due to damage in the temporal association cortex
Review receptive fields
A specific region of sensory space in which an appropriate stimulus can drive an electrical response in a sensory neuron
Know pathway that connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas
arcuate fasciculus
Review old quiz questions
aye aye captain
Review Tay Sach’s disease
recessive allele is passed down and in turn, this person misses an enzyme that breaks down fatty substances. This leads to build up to toxic levels of these substances that damages the brain, spinal cord, and ultimately leads to death
- Disorder or lipid metabolism
- intellectual disability, physical changes, and death by about age 5
- Caused by a recessive allele on chromosome 15.
- Common in Ashkenazi Jews
Structure of the basal ganglia
- globus pallidus
- putamen
- subthalamic nucleus
- substantia nigra.
- caudate nucleus
Substantia nigra.
It produces dopamine, which controls movements and muscle tone
feeds info in the basal ganglia based on the amount of dopamine
Subthalamic nucleus
modulation of movement. It helps to modulate movement through the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia with the other components of the basal ganglia
Globus pallidus
- volume control on the motor cortex
- if the globus pallidus internal is inhibited, and the pathway is freed to produce movement
- if the globus pallidus is activated it inhibits the thalamus, thus blocking movement
Putamen
Voluntary movement and rewards, Damage may cause dyskinesis
Caudate nucleus
Voluntary movement and rewards, Damage may cause dyskinesis
Structure of the striatum
Caudate and putamen
contains neuronal activity related to movements, rewards and the conjunction of both movement and reward.
Structure of the ventral striatum
Nucleus accumbens
Review the auditory pathway
Cochlear nucleus ->
olivary complex ->
inferior colliculus ->
medial geniculate nucleus ->
auditory cortex
Review the auditory anatomy
Pinna -> ear canal -> eardrum -> ossicles -> oval window -> cochlear fluid -> basal and tectorial membranes -> cilia
- Pinna catches sound waves in the ear canal
- Waves amplified and directed to the eardrum
- Eardrum vibrates the ossicles
- Ossicles amplify vibrations to the oval window
- Vibration of oval window sends waves through cochlear fluid
- Waves cause the basilar and tectorial membranes to bend
- Membrane bends cause cilia of inner hair cells to bend and generate neural activity towards nerve fibers
Cerebellum function and connection
- Accounts for 80% of the brain’s neurons
- Cerebellum connects with the neocortex
- Cerebellum is critical in producing fine movements and perceptions and be associated with working memory, attention, language, music, and decision making processes
Review the pathway and structure of the olfactory system
Olfactory mucosa -> Cilia in the Nasal epithelium -> through the cribriform plate (bone) -> pyriform cortex/cranial nerve 1
All occurs in olfactory bulb which then takes it to the brain in the pyriform cortex
Pheromones
biochemical released by one animal that act as chemosignals to affect the physiology or behavior of another animal
(Humans have pheromones but we do not have an active vomeronasal organs)
Vomeronasal Organ
accessory olfactory system that is involved in pheromones
HPA
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal circuit
Dorsal visual pathway
Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the parietal cortex
- The HOW pathway (how action is to be guided toward objects)
Retinohypothalamic visual pathway
- Synapses in the tiny suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus
- Roles in regulating circadian rhythms and in the pupillary reflex
Layers of lateral geniculate nucleus
- Layers 3-6 are parvocellular (color)
- Layers 1-2 are magnocellular (light + moving stimuli)
plays an essential role in normal visual processing.
Ventral visual pathway
- Pathway that originates in the occipital cortex and projects to the temporal cortex
- The WHAT pathway (identifies an object)
Geniculostriate system
Projections from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex
Tectopulvinar system
Projections from the retina to the superior colliculus to the pulvinar (back of the thalamus) to the parietal and temporal visual areas
Visual system
rods and cones -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> Geniculostriate system
OR Tectopulvinar system
Brain regions associated with implicit memories
Basal ganglia and premotor cortex
Brain regions associated emotional memories
amygdala and brainstem
Long-term potentiation
In response to stimulation at a synapse, changed amplitude of an excitatory postsynaptic potential that lasts for hours to days or longer. THE SYNAPSE IS STRENGTHENED
Plays a part in associative learning
CHECK THIS
Long-term depression
- a mechanism for cleaning our old memories. Opposite of LTP
- Glutamate is released on these postsynaptic membrane, binds to AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors
- After NMDA receptors open, Ca enters the postsynaptic neuron, altering the postsynaptic neuron
- AMPA receptors leave the synaptic junction
Monozygotic twins can be discordant with schizophrenia. The twin with schizophrenia would have _____________
Large ventricles
Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease
- Rapidly progressing dementia
- Eating cows with mad cow disease, causes our proteins to misfold
- Prion disease where the proteins are abnormally folded
Other name for mad cow disease
Bovinespongaformencephalopy
Action Potentials (what do they represent?)
nerve pulse: Propagation of an action potential on the membrane of an axon
A WAVE OF DEPOLARIZATION ACROSS THE MEMBRANE, THIS IS THE SIGNAL
Ions in hyperpolarization
K+ efflux and Cl- influx
Ions in depolarization
Na+ influx
Saltatory conduction
the action potential jumps rapidly from node to node, doesn’t need to restart the action potential
Naloxone
an antagonist, competes and beats the opioid so that it will not go on that receptor making it an competitive inhibitor
Difference between Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia
Broca’s aphasia -> inability to speak fluently despite having normal comprehension and intact vocal mechanisms
wernicke’s aphasia -> inability to produce meaningful language even though the production of words is still intact
Insula
gustatory and sensorimotor processing, risk-reward behavior, autonomics, pain pathways, and auditory and vestibular functioning. It is because of insula that people are able to perceive pain and have the awareness about their body and self.
Insomnia
- Disorder of slow-wave sleep resulting in prolonged ability to sleep
- Multiple causes such as anxiety, depression, fatal familial insomnia (lack of REM), chromosome 20
- Symptom rather than a disorder
Drug dependence insomnia
Condition resulting from continuous use of sleeping pills, drug tolerance also results in deprivation of either R-sleep or N-sleep, often leading the user to increase the drug dosage
Narcolepsy
- Slow-wave sleep disorder in which a person uncontrollably falls asleep at inappropriate times
- Drugs that stimulate dopamines transmission are helpful
- Cataplexy can result, intrusion of atonia
- Sleep paralysis
- Intrusion of R-sleep into a waking sleep
Sleep Apnea
Inability to breathe during sleep
Person has to wake up to breathe
Sleep paralysis
Atonia and dreaming when a person is awake, usually just falling asleep or waking up
Cataplexy
Form of narcolepsy linked to strong emotional stimulation in which an animal loses all muscle activity or tone, as if in r-sleep, while awake
Hypnagogic hallucination
Dreamlike event while you’re falling asleep or while a person is in a state of cataplexy
R-sleep behavioral disorder
- People who display this behave as though as they are acting out their dreams
- The disorder affects some people who take antidepressant drugs
- The disorder can be treated with benzos, antianxiety drugs that block r-sleep
People with sleep disorders often have a low level of _________
Orexin
Two brainstem systems influence waking
Basal forebrain and Median raphe nucleus (midbrain)
Basal Forebrain
Contains cholinergic cells that secrete acetylcholine onto neocortical neurons that stimulate a waking EEG rhythms
Median raphe nucleus (midbrain)
Contains serotonin neurons that project diffusely to the neocortex, stimulants beta rhythms
Medial Pontine reticular Formation (MPRF)
Nucleus in the pons participating in R-sleep, produces the atonia of sleep
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
- Large reticulum that runs through the center of the brainstem
- Associated with sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal
- Often called the reticular formation
- Stimulation of the RAS produces a waking EEG
-Produces a slow wave EEG, can result in a coma - Main source of waking, not the only one
Causes of Alzheimers disease
Genetics only accounts for 1% of all alzheimer’s causes
Cause is unknown but many have been proposed
Low education attainment is a risk factor, high education attainment is a protective factor
Anatomical correlates of alzheimers
Amyloid plaques and Neurofibrillary tangles
Amyloid plaques
Composed of hyperphosphorylated tau
Located mostly in the cerebral cortex
Also found in non-alzheimer dementia
Neurofibrillary tangles
Composed of hyperphosphorylated tau
Paired helical filaments found in the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus
Parkinson’s disease
Loss of cells in substantial nigra
Highly associated with dementia
Basic motor symptoms
Tremors
Slow movement
Mask-like expression
Loss of eye blinking
Arm hang
Loss of posture
Causes
Environmental pollutant and many others
Lesions here can be used to treat parkinson’s disease
Internal globus pallidus
Negative effects of drugs used to schizophrenia
- Drugs that treat schizo can result in abnormal movement disorders
- Some antipsychotic medications can cause tardive dyskinesia: Abnormal movements and behaviors
Huntington’s Disease
A dominant gene disorder that causes intellectual impairment and clumsiness
Caused by a mutation in a gene that creates a protein responsible for breaking down DNA
SUDEP
Sudden unexpected death from epilepsy
R sleep is abolished if we damage the ____________ of medial pontine reticular formation
peribrachial area
BRAC
- Recurring cycle of temporal packets (90 minutes) during which an animal’s level of arousal waxes and wanes
- So fundamental that it cannot be turned off even at night
function of prefrontal association cortex
Produces cognition.
Long-term potentiation involves increased numbers of
AMPA receptors.
Associative learning is a form of
implicit memory
Abnormalities of which neurotransmitter are associated with narcolepsy?
Orexin
REM-sleep behavior disorder could potentially lead to _________________
Parkinson’s disease.
Damage to which region tends to result in hyperkinetic or hypokinetic movements?
Caudate
The interaural intensity difference is detected in the
Lateral part of the superior olive and the trapezoid body.
From outside to inside, which is the correct order?
Skull, dura mater, arachnoid membrane, subarachnoid space, pia mater, brain.
Which three cranial nerves are involved with eye movements?
oculomotor, trochlear, abducens
The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor binds to which neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
Phencyclidine (PCP) is
glutamate antagonist
