Final Exam Flashcards
Biology
scientific study of life
anatomy
study of structures of the body
physiology
study of functions of the anatomical structures
Interrelationship of structure and function
erythocytes- carry oxygen, have biconcave shape, flexible
six levels of organization
- chemical
- cellular
- tissue
- organ
- organ systems
- whole organism
four major types of tissues
- epitheleal
- connective
- muscle
- nervous
hemeostasis
all body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment
homeostasis with blood glucose
increased BG- sensed by insuline producing cells in pancrease- insulin producing cells produced- insuline release- liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen, or body cells take up more blood glucose- BG decreased
negative feedback
processes that cause variable to move in opposite direction
why is negative feedback to common in the body and how does it stop?
variable change too much, body bring back to homeostasis
self terminating
Positive feedback
response increases change of stimulus
childbirth, terminated by external factors
serous membranes
parietal- on top of organ
visceral- lines cavity wall
dosal body cavity and its components
cranical cavity (brain)
vertebral cavity (spinal cord)
ventral body cavity and its coponents
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity
Atom and subatomic particles
smallest stable unit of matter
Protons (-)
neutrons
Electrons (+)
Ionic Bonds
attraction between opposite charges that draws the two ions togetehr
Anions vs Cations
A- electron acceptor (-)
C- electron donor (+)
Covalent bonds
sharing pairs of valence elcetrons between atoms
hydrogen bonds
bonds between adjacent moleculse, not atoms. Partial negative and positive charges attracted to eachother
3 types of chemical reactions that occur inside our cells
- decomposition (break molecule into smaller components)
- synthesis (combining of atoms into larger molecules)
- Exchange reactions (reactants are shuffled to produce new products)
hydrolysis vs dehydration
H- decomposition using water
D- removal of water to for molecule
Catabolism vs Anabolism
C- release energy
A- require energy
pH
the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
Acid- lower than 7.0
Base- higher than 7.0
Acid vs Base
A- adds hydrogen ions to solution (proton donor)
B- removes hydrogen ions from solution (proton acceptor)
Buffers
compounds that stabalize pH by removing and replacing H+
four major organic molecules
1.carbohydrates
2. lipids
3. proteins
4. nucleic acids
carbohydrates- components
monosaccharids
disaccharides
polysaccharids
lipids- charateristics
hydrophobic molecules such as fats and oils
proteins- building blocks
amino acids
peptide bonds and polypeptides
amino acids linked through deydration synthesis= bond
poly= three or more amino acids linked together
what determines the function of a protein
shape
what is a proteins shape ultimately determined by?
sequence of amino acids
what is denaturation and when does it happen?
protein shape and function deteriorate- under extreme conditions
which of the four major organic molecules are enzymes?
regulatory proteins
with regard to enzymes, what are substrates and active sites?
s- reactants in enzymatic reactions
a- binding site of specific region of enzyme
specificity
active sites only boind substrates with a certain shape and size
nucleic acids- building blocks
Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Ribonucleic Acid
What are the different nitrogenous bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, uracil (replace thymine)
What are the two classes of cells in the human body?
somatic cells
sex cells
What three major organic molecules compose the plasma membrane?
lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
two types of membrane proteins
- integral (within membrane)
- peripheral proteins (bound to inner or outer surface of membrane)
microvilli and function
are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume
cilia and function
A cilium, or cilia (plural), are small hair-like protuberances on the outside of eukaryotic cells. They are primarily responsible for locomotion
Rough ER and function
produce proteins
Mitochondria and function
produce ATP
Glycolysis vs aerobic respiration
G- in cytosol, few ATP produced, 1glucose=2pyruvate
A- inside mitochondria, 95% ATP, H2O produced
DNA has instructions for making every_____ in the body
protein
Chromatin vs chromosomes
Chromatin, loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)
Chromosomes, tightly coilded DNA (cells dividing
Somatic cells= 46
Gene
a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize.
General process of protein synthesis
enzymes copy instructions from DNA to mRNA. mRNA then moves into cytoplasm through nuclear pore (transcription)
Ribosomes read the code on mRNA. tRNA anticodon delivers an amino acid to mRNA codon in ribosome a peptide bond is formed by rRNA cpmmectomg two amino acids together (translation)
Selectively permeable
allows some materals to move freely while restricting other materials
Active transport vs passive transport
A- require energy
P- no energy
How does diffusion work?
more solute in one part of solvent then another, solutes always move in one direction- from high concentration to low concentration to try and eliminate concentration gradient
Osmosis
diffusion of water across the cell membrane
Isotonic
a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell
hypotonic
a pypotonic solution has less solutes and looses water through osmosis
hypertonic
a hypertonic solution has more solutes and gains water by osmosis
Two types of vesicular transport
Endocytosis and exocytosis
two types of endocytosis
phagocytosis (eat)
pinocytosis (drink)
general life cycle of a cell
Interphase (gap 1, synthesis, gap 2)
Mitotic phase (mitosis, cytokinesis)
what are chromatids?
duplicated chromosomes
Mitosis
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
Cancer
mutations to the genes encoding proteins that regulate cell cycle
benign vs malignant tumors
Benign tumors tend to grow slowly and do not spread. Malignant tumors can grow rapidly, invade and destroy nearby normal tissues, and spread throughout the body.
Six major functions of the skin
- protects underlying tissues and organs
- excretes salts, water, and organic wastes
- maintains body temperature
- synthesizes vitamin D3
- stores lipids
- detects touch, pressure, pain and temperature
what two parts compose the integumentary system?
- cutaneous membrane
- accessory structures
what are exocrine glands?
secrete into ducts (carry to surface)
epidermis
epethelial tissuem outermost layer, avascular, 5 different layers
dermis
connective tissue, tough leathery layer, vascular
hypodermis
stabalize and support integument
five strata
- basale
- spinosum
- granulosum
- lucidum
- corneum
what stratum is present in thick skin but not thin skin?
lucidum
what pigment influences skin color
melanin (produced by melanocytes)
stratum basale
what function does melanin serve
protects epidermal cells from uv radiation
what vitamin is synthesized by UV radiation?
D
Calcitrol’s function
aids in absorption of calcium
what is scar tissue
replacements of integument with acellular inflexible tissue which lacks glands and hair follicles
Which of the 4 main tissue types is bone in?
Connective
six functions of bone
- internal supportive framework
- stores and releases minerals
- storage of energy
- hematopoiesis
- external protective covering
- assistance in movement
What is the composition of extracellular matrix of bone tissue?
water, collagen fibers (flexibility), and hydroxyapaptite crystals (hardness)
location and function of diaphysis
shaft of bone, heavy wall of compact bone (contain medullary cavity)
epiphysis
ends of bone, articulates with other bones
epiphyseal plate
separates diaphysis from epiphysis, where bone grows in length
metaphysis
small area between diaphysis and epiphysis (ephiphyseal plate)
articular cartilage
cover end of epiphysis
periosteum
fibrous outer layer; osteogenic inner layer
medullary cavity
yellow bone marrow
endosteum
thin membrane that lines marrow cavity, bone groth and repair
compact bone
dense sold bone on outside
spongy bone
network of struts (inside)
Red vs Yellow bone marrow
R- developing bones of newborn and around spongy bone. Hematpoytis
Y-medullary cavity, energy storage
osteocytes
mature cells that maintain and repair damaged bone
osteogenic cells
stem cells that divide to produce osteoblasts
osteoblasts
immature bone cells that secrete bone matrix
osteoclasts
break down bone matrix
how do osteocytes in compact bone get nutrients?
canaliculi
how do osteocytes in spongy bone get nutrients?
caniliculie open to surface of trabeculae
what fills the spaces between trabeculae
red bone marrow, blood, lymphatic, and nerves
Spongy vs Compact bone
S- inside,multidirectional stress, weaker
C- outside, 1 direction stress, stronger
what are fontanels
soft spots- when brain grows faster than flat bones
help fit through birth canal, more prone to damage
what happens to the epiphyseal plate after puberty
it becomes the epiphyseal line
what is the effect of weight-bearing exercise on bone?
become thicker and stronger
parathyroid hormone
produced by parathyroid gland, stimulates osteoclasts, decrease calcium loos by kidneys.
Calcitronin
produced by thyroid gland, activates osteoblasts, promots calcium loss by kidneys
articulation
where two bones meet
what determines the direction and distance of movement of a joint:
structure
what increases as the mobility of a joint decreases?
joint strength
four structural classifications of joints
- bony fusion
- fibrous joint
- cartilaginous joint
- synovial joint
functional classifications of a joint
- synarthrosis
- amphiarthrosis
- diarthrosis
what attaches skeletal muscles to bone?
tendons
5 functions of the skeletal muscle
- produce body movement
- stabalize body position
3.storing and moving substances in body - heat production
- store nutrients reserves
what is a sarcolemma
cell membrane
where is the sarcoplasmic reticulum located and what is its function?
surround myofibril, store and release calcium
what are T Tubules and what is their function?
network of tubules used to convey electrical impulses for muscle contraction
atrophy
wasting of muscle due to the loss of myofibrils within muscle fibers
hypertrophy
increase in size of muscle fiber due to increased production of myofibrils
organization fo muscle
epimysium, whole muscle, perimysium, fascicle, endomysium, sarcolema, muscle fiber, sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibril, fyofilaments
what produces the striations seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle?
actin and myosin
4 steps of sliding filament mechanism
- action potential leads to the release of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum- calcium binds to troponin producing a change in the orientation of troponin tropomyosin complex that exposes the acive sites on actin
- cross bridges form when myosin heads bind to active sites
- myosin head pivots toward the m line actin slides toward m line and sarcomere contracts
- ATP gives myosin head energy to unattatch
neuromuscular junction
synapse between somatci motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber
what is a synapse?
site of communication between a nerve cell and another cell
physiology at NMJ
- Action potential travels down axon to synaptic terminal
- opens calcium channels in synaptic terminal which causes a sudden change in the terminals membrane potential
- ACh diffuses into synaptic cleft, ACh binds to receptors on surface of sarcolemma at the motor end plate, this increases the sarcolemma s eprmeability to sodium, sodium then rushes into sarcoplasm
- sudden rush of sodium into sarcoplasm results in an action potentail in the sarcolemma
what enzyme breaks down ACh
acetylchoinesterase
wave summation
stimulus frequency is greater than duration of a single twitch
tetanus
stimulation occurs immediately after relaxation phase
which molecules stores most of the glucose in muscle fibers?
glycogen
which source of ATP provides the most ATP?
glycolysis
what lactic acid do to pH
decrease pH- cause fatigue
What is the primary function of the nervous system?
communication
three divisions of the PNS
somatic, autonomic, enteric
what is it called when cell bodies are found in aggregates of CNS
nucleus
cell bodies outside CNS
ganglion
axons and dendrites in CNS
tract
axons and dendrites outside CNS
nerve
Presynaptic cell
neuron that sends message
postsynaptic cell
cell that receives message
synaptic cleft
small gap that separates the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane
three functional classifications of neurons
- sensory
- motor
3.Interneurons
four structural classifications
- anaxonic (special sense)
- bipolar(special sensory)
- unipolar(general sensory)
- multipolar (motor)
schwann cells
produce myeline sheath
ependymal cells
produce CSF
Microglia
phagocytosis of foreign matter
Oligodendrocytes
myelin sheath
Astrocytes
form blood brain barrier
satellite cells
regulates the exchange of nutrients between the cell body of a neuron and extracellular fluid in the PNS
function of myelin
increase speed of action potentials
white matter
myelinated tracts
gray matter
unmyelinated tracts
Resting potential
transmembrane potential of resting cell
graded potential
localized change in resting potential caused by a stimulus
action potential
electrical impulse produced by a large enough graded potential
synaptic activity
releases neurotransmitters at presynaptic membrane due to action potential
information processing
response of postsynaptic cell
transmembrane potential
potential difference that results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative ions across the plasma membrane
concentration difference of sodium and potasium at resting potential
sodium more concentrated outside
potassium more concentrated inside
is the outside fo the membrane more positively or negatively charged than the inside of the plasma membran at RP
negative
mV of normal resting membrane
-70
electrochemical gradient
S- into cell
P- out of cell
what si the active force that acts to balance the passive forces to maintain resting potential
sodium potasium exchange pump
how does sodium rush into the cell to change the resting membrane potential
voltage gate
where do graded potentials occur in neuron
dendrite and cell bodies and synaptic terminal
where do action potentials occur
axons
threshold potential in mV
-60 to -55
4 steps in generation of action potential
- depolariztion to threshold
- activation of sodium channels
- closing of sodium voltage gated channels opening of potassium voltage gated channels (repolarization)
- return to normal resting potential
which is faster saltatory propagation or continuous propagation
saltatory
Excitatory neurotransmitters
cause depolarization of postynaptic membranes (promote action potential)
inhibitory neurotransmitters
cause hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membranes (suppress action potentials)
effect of neurotransmitter on postsynpatic membrane depends on the properties of the_____
receptor
cholinergic synapse
any synapse that releases ACh
