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BI 121 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

Biology

A

scientific study of life

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2
Q

anatomy

A

study of structures of the body

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3
Q

physiology

A

study of functions of the anatomical structures

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4
Q

Interrelationship of structure and function

A

erythocytes- carry oxygen, have biconcave shape, flexible

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5
Q

six levels of organization

A
  1. chemical
  2. cellular
  3. tissue
  4. organ
  5. organ systems
  6. whole organism
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6
Q

four major types of tissues

A
  1. epitheleal
  2. connective
  3. muscle
  4. nervous
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7
Q

hemeostasis

A

all body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment

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8
Q

homeostasis with blood glucose

A

increased BG- sensed by insuline producing cells in pancrease- insulin producing cells produced- insuline release- liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen, or body cells take up more blood glucose- BG decreased

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9
Q

negative feedback

A

processes that cause variable to move in opposite direction

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10
Q

why is negative feedback to common in the body and how does it stop?

A

variable change too much, body bring back to homeostasis
self terminating

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11
Q

Positive feedback

A

response increases change of stimulus
childbirth, terminated by external factors

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12
Q

serous membranes

A

parietal- on top of organ
visceral- lines cavity wall

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13
Q

dosal body cavity and its components

A

cranical cavity (brain)
vertebral cavity (spinal cord)

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14
Q

ventral body cavity and its coponents

A

thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity

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15
Q

Atom and subatomic particles

A

smallest stable unit of matter
Protons (-)
neutrons
Electrons (+)

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16
Q

Ionic Bonds

A

attraction between opposite charges that draws the two ions togetehr

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17
Q

Anions vs Cations

A

A- electron acceptor (-)
C- electron donor (+)

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18
Q

Covalent bonds

A

sharing pairs of valence elcetrons between atoms

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19
Q

hydrogen bonds

A

bonds between adjacent moleculse, not atoms. Partial negative and positive charges attracted to eachother

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20
Q

3 types of chemical reactions that occur inside our cells

A
  1. decomposition (break molecule into smaller components)
  2. synthesis (combining of atoms into larger molecules)
  3. Exchange reactions (reactants are shuffled to produce new products)
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21
Q

hydrolysis vs dehydration

A

H- decomposition using water
D- removal of water to for molecule

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22
Q

Catabolism vs Anabolism

A

C- release energy
A- require energy

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23
Q

pH

A

the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution
Acid- lower than 7.0
Base- higher than 7.0

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24
Q

Acid vs Base

A

A- adds hydrogen ions to solution (proton donor)
B- removes hydrogen ions from solution (proton acceptor)

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25
Q

Buffers

A

compounds that stabalize pH by removing and replacing H+

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26
Q

four major organic molecules

A

1.carbohydrates
2. lipids
3. proteins
4. nucleic acids

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27
Q

carbohydrates- components

A

monosaccharids
disaccharides
polysaccharids

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28
Q

lipids- charateristics

A

hydrophobic molecules such as fats and oils

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29
Q

proteins- building blocks

A

amino acids

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30
Q

peptide bonds and polypeptides

A

amino acids linked through deydration synthesis= bond
poly= three or more amino acids linked together

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31
Q

what determines the function of a protein

A

shape

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32
Q

what is a proteins shape ultimately determined by?

A

sequence of amino acids

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33
Q

what is denaturation and when does it happen?

A

protein shape and function deteriorate- under extreme conditions

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34
Q

which of the four major organic molecules are enzymes?

A

regulatory proteins

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35
Q

with regard to enzymes, what are substrates and active sites?

A

s- reactants in enzymatic reactions
a- binding site of specific region of enzyme

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36
Q

specificity

A

active sites only boind substrates with a certain shape and size

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37
Q

nucleic acids- building blocks

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid and Ribonucleic Acid

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38
Q

What are the different nitrogenous bases

A

adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, uracil (replace thymine)

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39
Q

What are the two classes of cells in the human body?

A

somatic cells
sex cells

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40
Q

What three major organic molecules compose the plasma membrane?

A

lipids, proteins, carbohydrates

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41
Q

two types of membrane proteins

A
  1. integral (within membrane)
  2. peripheral proteins (bound to inner or outer surface of membrane)
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42
Q

microvilli and function

A

are microscopic cellular membrane protrusions that increase the surface area for diffusion and minimize any increase in volume

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43
Q

cilia and function

A

A cilium, or cilia (plural), are small hair-like protuberances on the outside of eukaryotic cells. They are primarily responsible for locomotion

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44
Q

Rough ER and function

A

produce proteins

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45
Q

Mitochondria and function

A

produce ATP

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46
Q

Glycolysis vs aerobic respiration

A

G- in cytosol, few ATP produced, 1glucose=2pyruvate

A- inside mitochondria, 95% ATP, H2O produced

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47
Q

DNA has instructions for making every_____ in the body

A

protein

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48
Q

Chromatin vs chromosomes

A

Chromatin, loosely coiled DNA (cells not dividing)
Chromosomes, tightly coilded DNA (cells dividing
Somatic cells= 46

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49
Q

Gene

A

a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize.

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50
Q

General process of protein synthesis

A

enzymes copy instructions from DNA to mRNA. mRNA then moves into cytoplasm through nuclear pore (transcription)
Ribosomes read the code on mRNA. tRNA anticodon delivers an amino acid to mRNA codon in ribosome a peptide bond is formed by rRNA cpmmectomg two amino acids together (translation)

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51
Q

Selectively permeable

A

allows some materals to move freely while restricting other materials

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52
Q

Active transport vs passive transport

A

A- require energy
P- no energy

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53
Q

How does diffusion work?

A

more solute in one part of solvent then another, solutes always move in one direction- from high concentration to low concentration to try and eliminate concentration gradient

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54
Q

Osmosis

A

diffusion of water across the cell membrane

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55
Q

Isotonic

A

a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water in or out of a cell

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56
Q

hypotonic

A

a pypotonic solution has less solutes and looses water through osmosis

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57
Q

hypertonic

A

a hypertonic solution has more solutes and gains water by osmosis

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58
Q

Two types of vesicular transport

A

Endocytosis and exocytosis

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59
Q

two types of endocytosis

A

phagocytosis (eat)
pinocytosis (drink)

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60
Q

general life cycle of a cell

A

Interphase (gap 1, synthesis, gap 2)
Mitotic phase (mitosis, cytokinesis)

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61
Q

what are chromatids?

A

duplicated chromosomes

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62
Q

Mitosis

A

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

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63
Q

Cancer

A

mutations to the genes encoding proteins that regulate cell cycle

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64
Q

benign vs malignant tumors

A

Benign tumors tend to grow slowly and do not spread. Malignant tumors can grow rapidly, invade and destroy nearby normal tissues, and spread throughout the body.

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65
Q

Six major functions of the skin

A
  1. protects underlying tissues and organs
  2. excretes salts, water, and organic wastes
  3. maintains body temperature
  4. synthesizes vitamin D3
  5. stores lipids
  6. detects touch, pressure, pain and temperature
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66
Q

what two parts compose the integumentary system?

A
  1. cutaneous membrane
  2. accessory structures
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67
Q

what are exocrine glands?

A

secrete into ducts (carry to surface)

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68
Q

epidermis

A

epethelial tissuem outermost layer, avascular, 5 different layers

69
Q

dermis

A

connective tissue, tough leathery layer, vascular

70
Q

hypodermis

A

stabalize and support integument

71
Q

five strata

A
  1. basale
  2. spinosum
  3. granulosum
  4. lucidum
  5. corneum
72
Q

what stratum is present in thick skin but not thin skin?

A

lucidum

73
Q

what pigment influences skin color

A

melanin (produced by melanocytes)
stratum basale

74
Q

what function does melanin serve

A

protects epidermal cells from uv radiation

75
Q

what vitamin is synthesized by UV radiation?

A

D

76
Q

Calcitrol’s function

A

aids in absorption of calcium

77
Q

what is scar tissue

A

replacements of integument with acellular inflexible tissue which lacks glands and hair follicles

78
Q

Which of the 4 main tissue types is bone in?

A

Connective

79
Q

six functions of bone

A
  1. internal supportive framework
  2. stores and releases minerals
  3. storage of energy
  4. hematopoiesis
  5. external protective covering
  6. assistance in movement
80
Q

What is the composition of extracellular matrix of bone tissue?

A

water, collagen fibers (flexibility), and hydroxyapaptite crystals (hardness)

81
Q

location and function of diaphysis

A

shaft of bone, heavy wall of compact bone (contain medullary cavity)

82
Q

epiphysis

A

ends of bone, articulates with other bones

83
Q

epiphyseal plate

A

separates diaphysis from epiphysis, where bone grows in length

84
Q

metaphysis

A

small area between diaphysis and epiphysis (ephiphyseal plate)

85
Q

articular cartilage

A

cover end of epiphysis

86
Q

periosteum

A

fibrous outer layer; osteogenic inner layer

87
Q

medullary cavity

A

yellow bone marrow

88
Q

endosteum

A

thin membrane that lines marrow cavity, bone groth and repair

89
Q

compact bone

A

dense sold bone on outside

90
Q

spongy bone

A

network of struts (inside)

91
Q

Red vs Yellow bone marrow

A

R- developing bones of newborn and around spongy bone. Hematpoytis
Y-medullary cavity, energy storage

92
Q

osteocytes

A

mature cells that maintain and repair damaged bone

93
Q

osteogenic cells

A

stem cells that divide to produce osteoblasts

94
Q

osteoblasts

A

immature bone cells that secrete bone matrix

95
Q

osteoclasts

A

break down bone matrix

96
Q

how do osteocytes in compact bone get nutrients?

A

canaliculi

97
Q

how do osteocytes in spongy bone get nutrients?

A

caniliculie open to surface of trabeculae

98
Q

what fills the spaces between trabeculae

A

red bone marrow, blood, lymphatic, and nerves

99
Q

Spongy vs Compact bone

A

S- inside,multidirectional stress, weaker
C- outside, 1 direction stress, stronger

100
Q

what are fontanels

A

soft spots- when brain grows faster than flat bones
help fit through birth canal, more prone to damage

101
Q

what happens to the epiphyseal plate after puberty

A

it becomes the epiphyseal line

102
Q

what is the effect of weight-bearing exercise on bone?

A

become thicker and stronger

103
Q

parathyroid hormone

A

produced by parathyroid gland, stimulates osteoclasts, decrease calcium loos by kidneys.

104
Q

Calcitronin

A

produced by thyroid gland, activates osteoblasts, promots calcium loss by kidneys

105
Q

articulation

A

where two bones meet

106
Q

what determines the direction and distance of movement of a joint:

A

structure

107
Q

what increases as the mobility of a joint decreases?

A

joint strength

108
Q

four structural classifications of joints

A
  1. bony fusion
  2. fibrous joint
  3. cartilaginous joint
  4. synovial joint
109
Q

functional classifications of a joint

A
  1. synarthrosis
  2. amphiarthrosis
  3. diarthrosis
110
Q

what attaches skeletal muscles to bone?

A

tendons

111
Q

5 functions of the skeletal muscle

A
  1. produce body movement
  2. stabalize body position
    3.storing and moving substances in body
  3. heat production
  4. store nutrients reserves
112
Q

what is a sarcolemma

A

cell membrane

113
Q

where is the sarcoplasmic reticulum located and what is its function?

A

surround myofibril, store and release calcium

114
Q

what are T Tubules and what is their function?

A

network of tubules used to convey electrical impulses for muscle contraction

115
Q

atrophy

A

wasting of muscle due to the loss of myofibrils within muscle fibers

116
Q

hypertrophy

A

increase in size of muscle fiber due to increased production of myofibrils

117
Q

organization fo muscle

A

epimysium, whole muscle, perimysium, fascicle, endomysium, sarcolema, muscle fiber, sarcoplasmic reticulum, myofibril, fyofilaments

118
Q

what produces the striations seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle?

A

actin and myosin

119
Q

4 steps of sliding filament mechanism

A
  1. action potential leads to the release of calcium by the sarcoplasmic reticulum- calcium binds to troponin producing a change in the orientation of troponin tropomyosin complex that exposes the acive sites on actin
  2. cross bridges form when myosin heads bind to active sites
  3. myosin head pivots toward the m line actin slides toward m line and sarcomere contracts
  4. ATP gives myosin head energy to unattatch
120
Q

neuromuscular junction

A

synapse between somatci motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber

121
Q

what is a synapse?

A

site of communication between a nerve cell and another cell

122
Q

physiology at NMJ

A
  1. Action potential travels down axon to synaptic terminal
  2. opens calcium channels in synaptic terminal which causes a sudden change in the terminals membrane potential
  3. ACh diffuses into synaptic cleft, ACh binds to receptors on surface of sarcolemma at the motor end plate, this increases the sarcolemma s eprmeability to sodium, sodium then rushes into sarcoplasm
  4. sudden rush of sodium into sarcoplasm results in an action potentail in the sarcolemma
123
Q

what enzyme breaks down ACh

A

acetylchoinesterase

124
Q

wave summation

A

stimulus frequency is greater than duration of a single twitch

125
Q

tetanus

A

stimulation occurs immediately after relaxation phase

126
Q

which molecules stores most of the glucose in muscle fibers?

A

glycogen

127
Q

which source of ATP provides the most ATP?

A

glycolysis

128
Q

what lactic acid do to pH

A

decrease pH- cause fatigue

129
Q

What is the primary function of the nervous system?

A

communication

130
Q

three divisions of the PNS

A

somatic, autonomic, enteric

131
Q

what is it called when cell bodies are found in aggregates of CNS

A

nucleus

132
Q

cell bodies outside CNS

A

ganglion

133
Q

axons and dendrites in CNS

A

tract

134
Q

axons and dendrites outside CNS

A

nerve

135
Q

Presynaptic cell

A

neuron that sends message

136
Q

postsynaptic cell

A

cell that receives message

137
Q

synaptic cleft

A

small gap that separates the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane

138
Q

three functional classifications of neurons

A
  1. sensory
  2. motor
    3.Interneurons
139
Q

four structural classifications

A
  1. anaxonic (special sense)
  2. bipolar(special sensory)
  3. unipolar(general sensory)
  4. multipolar (motor)
140
Q

schwann cells

A

produce myeline sheath

141
Q

ependymal cells

A

produce CSF

142
Q

Microglia

A

phagocytosis of foreign matter

143
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

myelin sheath

144
Q

Astrocytes

A

form blood brain barrier

145
Q

satellite cells

A

regulates the exchange of nutrients between the cell body of a neuron and extracellular fluid in the PNS

146
Q

function of myelin

A

increase speed of action potentials

147
Q

white matter

A

myelinated tracts

148
Q

gray matter

A

unmyelinated tracts

149
Q

Resting potential

A

transmembrane potential of resting cell

150
Q

graded potential

A

localized change in resting potential caused by a stimulus

151
Q

action potential

A

electrical impulse produced by a large enough graded potential

152
Q

synaptic activity

A

releases neurotransmitters at presynaptic membrane due to action potential

153
Q

information processing

A

response of postsynaptic cell

154
Q

transmembrane potential

A

potential difference that results from the uneven distribution of positive and negative ions across the plasma membrane

155
Q

concentration difference of sodium and potasium at resting potential

A

sodium more concentrated outside
potassium more concentrated inside

156
Q

is the outside fo the membrane more positively or negatively charged than the inside of the plasma membran at RP

A

negative

157
Q

mV of normal resting membrane

A

-70

158
Q

electrochemical gradient

A

S- into cell
P- out of cell

159
Q

what si the active force that acts to balance the passive forces to maintain resting potential

A

sodium potasium exchange pump

160
Q

how does sodium rush into the cell to change the resting membrane potential

A

voltage gate

161
Q

where do graded potentials occur in neuron

A

dendrite and cell bodies and synaptic terminal

162
Q

where do action potentials occur

A

axons

163
Q

threshold potential in mV

A

-60 to -55

164
Q

4 steps in generation of action potential

A
  1. depolariztion to threshold
  2. activation of sodium channels
  3. closing of sodium voltage gated channels opening of potassium voltage gated channels (repolarization)
  4. return to normal resting potential
165
Q

which is faster saltatory propagation or continuous propagation

A

saltatory

166
Q

Excitatory neurotransmitters

A

cause depolarization of postynaptic membranes (promote action potential)

167
Q

inhibitory neurotransmitters

A

cause hyperpolarization of postsynaptic membranes (suppress action potentials)

168
Q

effect of neurotransmitter on postsynpatic membrane depends on the properties of the_____

A

receptor

169
Q

cholinergic synapse

A

any synapse that releases ACh

BI 121 (4 decks)

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