Final chapters Flashcards
1
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.
2
Q
Define unconditioned stimulus (US)
A
A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.
3
Q
Define unconditioned response (UR)
A
A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.
4
Q
Define conditioned stimulus (CS)
A
A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.
5
Q
Define conditioned response (CR)
A
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus due to prior association.
6
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
A type of learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences.
Antecedent–> Behaviour–> Consequence
7
Q
Explain positive reinforcement.
A
Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
8
Q
Explain negative reinforcement.
A
Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
9
Q
Explain positive punishment.
A
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
10
Q
Explain negative punishment.
A
Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
11
Q
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
A
The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
12
Q
What is spontaneous recovery?
A
The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.
13
Q
What is preparedness?
A
A species-specific predisposition to learn certain associations more easily due to evolutionary adaptations.
Bright, noisy, tasty water
14
Q
Define stimulus generalization.
A
treat different stimuli the same
15
Q
Define stimulus discrimination.
A
treat those stimuli differently
16
Q
What is continuous reinforcement?
A
Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs.
17
Q
What is partial reinforcement?
A
Reinforcing the desired behavior only some of the time.
17
Q
What is a fixed-ratio schedule?
A
Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.
18
Q
What is a variable-ratio schedule?
A
Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses.
19
Q
What is a fixed-interval schedule?
A
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed.
20
Q
What is a variable-interval schedule?
A
Reinforcement occurs at unpredictable time intervals.
21
Q
What is observational learning?
A
Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.
22
Q
Who is associated with observational learning?
A
Albert Bandura.
22
Q
What are the four phases of observational learning?
A
Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation.
23
What is latent learning?
Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.
24
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by another.
25
Extinction
Process in which CS is presented in
absence of US
26
What is E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to recur.
27
What is a discriminative stimulus?
A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement.
28
What is stimulus control?
Behavior being influenced by the presence of a discriminative stimulus.
29
What is cognitive mapping?
Mental representations created by the mind to navigate the environment.
30
What is differential reinforcement?
Reinforcing specific behaviors while withholding reinforcement for others.
31
What is a safety signal?
A conditioned stimulus that indicates an aversive stimulus is not coming, creating a sense of safety.
32
What is escape behavior?
Performing a behavior to terminate an aversive stimulus.
33
What is avoidance behavior?
Performing a behavior to prevent an aversive stimulus from occurring.
34
What is learned helplessness?
A state where experiencing an uncontrollable aversive situation prevents learning to control future events.
35
Antecedent → Behaviour→Consequence
EXAMPLE When a rat is in a box and the que light goes on they can press a lever and the food is delivered to them
Antecedent = being in box with red light on
Behaviour = pressing of lever
Consequence = they get food
36
SOCIAL LEARNING
using a model so modeling our behaviour off the behaviour of others
37
Attention
Learner watches trainer
38
Retention
trainer models response and learner thinks about response
39
Production
learner demonstrates response without trainer modeling it
40
Motivation
learner’s imitated behavior produces reinforcer
41
CONSCIOUSNESS
Subjective experience of the
world and the mind
42
Phenomenology
Study of how things seem to the conscious person
43
Intentionality
Being directed towards an object
* Conscious of something
44
Unity
Resists division and involves integration of
information from the senses to form a whole
* Gestalt psychology
45
Selectivity:
Capacity to include some objects at
the exclusion of others
46
Transience:
Tendency or inevitability to change
47
Self-consciousness:
Attention is drawn to the self as an object
48
Full consciousness:
Know and can report your mental state
49
Daydreaming:
State of consciousness in which a
seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts comes to
mind (frontal lobe involved)
49
Minimal consciousness
Low-level sensory awareness, responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behaviour
50
Vegetative State:
Patients alternate between
eyes-open and eyes-closed states
51
Locked-In Syndrome:
Patients have full awareness but no ability to voluntarily respond
52
Mental control
Attempt to change conscious states of mind
53
Thought suppression
Conscious avoidance of a thought
54
Conscious
aware
55
Unconscious
unaware
56
Cognitive Unconscious:
Mental processes tied to thoughts, choices, emotions, and behaviour even though the person is not aware of them
57
Dual-process Theories:
Two different systems in the brain for processing information
58
Automatic processing (System 1)
* Minimal conscious processing
* Fast but static
59
Controlled (effortful) processing (System 2)
* Voluntary use of attention
* Slow but flexible
60
Conscious
* Mental events we are currently aware of
61
Preconscious
* Events outside of current awareness; easily recalled
62
Unconscious
* Not brought into conscious awareness (usually)
63
Dynamic Unconscious
A lifetime of hidden memories, instincts and urges, and the inner struggle to control these forces
64
Defense Mechanisms
Distortions of reality from the ego (unconscious)
65
Repression:
Removes anxiety-causing thoughts
and memories from consciousness and keeps
them in the unconscious
66
Personal Unconscious (JUNG)
Freud’s unconscious
67
Collective Unconscious
unconscious store of the experiences of past generations of different people throughout the world (ancestral knowledge)
68
Altered States of Consciousness
Form of experience that departs from the normal
subjective experience of the world and the mind (SLEEP, HYPNOSIS)
69
Hypnagogic State:
Pre-sleep consciousness
70
Hypnic Jerk:
Sudden twitch or sensation of dropping, as if missing a step
71
Hypnopompic State:
Post-sleep consciousness
72
Electromyograph:
Record muscle activity
73
Circadian Rhythm:
Endogenous daily (~24-hour) cycles in which biological processes fluctuate
* Sleep and wakefulness
* Temperature
* Blood cell production
* Hormone production
74
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Records electrical activity in the brain
75
Electrooculograph
Record eye movements
76
Awake:
Characterized by high frequency BETA
waves
77
Drowsy/relaxed
Beta waves gradually replaced by lower
frequency ALPHA waves as individual relaxes
78
Stage 1:
Alpha and beta waves from wakefulness
transition to even lower frequency THETA waves
79
Stage 2:
Brain waves slow, heart rate slows,
body temperature decreases, muscles relax, eye
movements cease (SLEEP SPINDLE, K COMPLEX)
80
Functions of sleep
Memory consolidation
Feel rested
Body needs to rest
80
Stages 3 and 4 (aka Slow-Wave Sleep):
Lowest frequency waves, delta waves, appear (DELTA ACTIVITY)
81
Stage 5 (aka REM Sleep)
EEG patterns return to higher-frequency SAWTOOTH waves that resemble the beta waves of waking
82
Sleep debt:
accumulated sleep loss over time
82
Sleep deprivation:
missing required amount of restful sleep over one or more days
Increase inflammatory response, hunger
Decrease emotional control (amygdala), immune functioning
83
Insomnia:
inability to fall asleep or to remain asleep
84
Hypersomnia:
excessive sleepiness
85
Sleep Apnea:
Reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleeper
86
Somnambulism:
Sleepwalking
87
Narcolepsy:
Falling asleep uncontrollably
87
Sleep Paralysis:
Wake up unable to move
88
Nightmares:
anxiety-arousing dreams
89
Night terrors:
intense arousal and panic
90
Dreams
Mental experiences during sleep
91
Psychoactive Drugs:
Chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains
92
Agonist
Drugs that increase the activity of a neurotransmitter
93
Antagonists
Drugs that inhibit or decrease the activity of a
neurotransmitter
94
Depressants:
Drugs that reduce activity of central nervous system
Effects: calming effect, induce sleep in high doses, arrest breathing in extremely high doses
Alcohol
95
Stimulants:
Drugs that excite the central nervous
system, heightening arousal and activity levels (caffeine, cocaine)
EFFECTS Increase the levels of dopamine and
norepinephrine and Increase Heart rate
96
Narcotics (Opiates):
Drugs that relieve pain by imitating or affecting endogenous opioids (endorphins) (heroine)
97
Hallucinogens
Drugs that alter sensation and perception
(LSD acid)
CAUSES visual and auditory hallucinations
98
Hypnosis:
Systematic procedure that increases
suggestibility
99
Meditation:
Practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes
under greater voluntary control
100
MEMORIES
ability to store and retrieve information over time
101
Encoding
The process of how information is initially learned
101
Storage
The process of maintaining information over (a short or long) time
101
Retrieval
The process involved in
recovering information
from memory to produce a
response
101
Memory process
Encoding --> Storage --> Retrieval
101
Semantic Encoding:
Actively relate new ideas to existing information in a meaningful way (lower left frontal lobe)
102
Visual Imagery Encoding
Store new information as mental pictures (occipital lobe)
103
Immediate Memory:
System that actively holds on to a limited amount of information so that it can be retained, manipulated, and processed
103
Sensory memory:
system that keeps information
translated by the senses briefly active in a
relatively unaltered, unexamined form.
Iconic =visual
Echoic = auditory
104
Organizational Encoding:
Categorize concepts according to relationships between them (upper-left frontal lobe)
105
Short-Term Memory:
Storage of limited information for short periods of time
106
Working Memory:
Active storage and
manipulation of limited information for short
periods of time
107
Long-Term Memory:
Our “library” of memories
* Durable storage of past events and learned
knowledge
* Large storage capacity
108
Episodic memory:
memories whose contents pertain to specific events or “episodes”
109
Semantic memory:
memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience
110
Anterograde Amnesia:
Whats left over, cant add new memories into long term
Loss of ability to assimilate and retain new knowledge
* Failure to transfer new information from short-term store to long-term store
111
Retrograde Amnesia:
Forget old stuff
Loss of memory for events that have happened in the past
* Failure to retrieve information that was stored in
long-term store, usually before a specific event
112
Prospective memory:
Remembering to perform a task in the future
113
Consolidation:
memories become stable in the brain
114
Reconsolidation:
Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled,
requiring them to become consolidated again
115
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):
communication across the synapse
between neurons strengthens the connection,
making further communication easier
116
Hyperthymesia
rare medical condition that leads to near-
perfect autobiographical recall
117
Memory is reconstructive means
flexible and changeable overtime and easily influenced by small things in the environment and internally
118
Serial Position Effect:
Describes the relationship between a word’s position in a list and its probability of recall
119
Primacy Effect:
It’s easy to remember things at the beginning of the list
120
Recency Effect:
It’s easy to remember things you’ve encountered most recently (end of the list)
121
implicit vs explicit
explicit memory involves the conscious recall of information (run through hippocampus and head to cortex)
implicit memory occurs automatically outside of awareness (basal ganglia and down to cerebellum)
122
4 Mnemonic devices
Simple, Semantic, Complex, Visual-based
123
Interference Theory
Information forgotten because
other items in LTM impair
ability to retrieve it
124
Emotion
Temporary mental state associated
with subjective evaluation of experiences and
physiological activation that prepares for action
124
James Lange Theory
Eliciting
stimuli trigger autonomic nervous system, which
produces emotional experience in the brain
125
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion:
Physiological activation and
conscious emotion occur
simultaneously and independently
126
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory:
Eliciting stimuli trigger a general state of
physiological arousal we then interpret as a
specific emotion
127
Instrumental Behaviours:
actions directed at
achieving a goal
128
Action Tendencies:
tendency to engage in
specific emotion-relevant behaviours
129
Expressive Behaviours:
Observable displays of
emotional state (i.e., facial expressions)
130
Homeostasis:
Internal state of physiological
equilibrium or stability (HYPOTHALAMUS)
131
Incentive:
an external goal that has the capacity
to motivate behaviour
132
Hedonic Principle:
People are motivated to
experience pleasure and avoid pain
133
Intrinsic Motivation:
performing an activity for its
own sake
134
Extrinsic Motivation:
performing activity to
obtain external reward or to avoid punishment
135
Psychodynamic theory
Behaviour driven by the anxiety created by the
conflict between unconscious instincts and our
internal defenses
136
Humanistic theory
Two categories for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
1. Deficiency Needs: things concerned with
physical and social survival
2. Growth Needs: unique to humans; push us to
develop our potential
* Strive for self-actualization
137
Basal (Resting) Metabolism:
Amount of energy
required for base cell operation
138
Set Point:
Biologically determined physiological
standard around which fat mass is regulated
139
Orexigenic Signals:
More hungry
140
Anorexigenic Signals:
Less hungry
141
Ghrelin:
increases feelings of hunger and leads
to eating behaviours (HANGRY)
142
Neuropeptide Y:
stimulates food intake
