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PSYCH 104 > Final chapters > Flashcards

Final chapters Flashcards

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1
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

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2
Q

Define unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

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3
Q

Define unconditioned response (UR)

A

A natural, automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

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4
Q

Define conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

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5
Q

Define conditioned response (CR)

A

A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus due to prior association.

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6
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A type of learning where behavior is controlled by its consequences.

Antecedent–> Behaviour–> Consequence

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7
Q

Explain positive reinforcement.

A

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

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8
Q

Explain negative reinforcement.

A

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

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9
Q

Explain positive punishment.

A

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

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10
Q

Explain negative punishment.

A

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

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11
Q

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

A

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

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12
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period.

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13
Q

What is preparedness?

A

A species-specific predisposition to learn certain associations more easily due to evolutionary adaptations.

Bright, noisy, tasty water

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14
Q

Define stimulus generalization.

A

treat different stimuli the same

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15
Q

Define stimulus discrimination.

A

treat those stimuli differently

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16
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs.

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17
Q

What is partial reinforcement?

A

Reinforcing the desired behavior only some of the time.

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17
Q

What is a fixed-ratio schedule?

A

Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.

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18
Q

What is a variable-ratio schedule?

A

Reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses.

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19
Q

What is a fixed-interval schedule?

A

Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed.

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20
Q

What is a variable-interval schedule?

A

Reinforcement occurs at unpredictable time intervals.

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21
Q

What is observational learning?

A

Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

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22
Q

Who is associated with observational learning?

A

Albert Bandura.

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22
Q

What are the four phases of observational learning?

A

Attention, Retention, Production, and Motivation.

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23
Q

What is latent learning?

A

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

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24
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

Neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe the same action performed by another.

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25
Q

Extinction

A

Process in which CS is presented in
absence of US

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26
Q

What is E. L. Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

A

Responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to recur, while those followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to recur.

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27
Q

What is a discriminative stimulus?

A

A stimulus that signals the availability of reinforcement.

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28
Q

What is stimulus control?

A

Behavior being influenced by the presence of a discriminative stimulus.

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29
Q

What is cognitive mapping?

A

Mental representations created by the mind to navigate the environment.

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30
Q

What is differential reinforcement?

A

Reinforcing specific behaviors while withholding reinforcement for others.

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31
Q

What is a safety signal?

A

A conditioned stimulus that indicates an aversive stimulus is not coming, creating a sense of safety.

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32
Q

What is escape behavior?

A

Performing a behavior to terminate an aversive stimulus.

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33
Q

What is avoidance behavior?

A

Performing a behavior to prevent an aversive stimulus from occurring.

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34
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

A state where experiencing an uncontrollable aversive situation prevents learning to control future events.

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35
Q

Antecedent → Behaviour→Consequence

EXAMPLE When a rat is in a box and the que light goes on they can press a lever and the food is delivered to them

A

Antecedent = being in box with red light on
Behaviour = pressing of lever
Consequence = they get food

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36
Q

SOCIAL LEARNING

A

using a model so modeling our behaviour off the behaviour of others

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37
Q

Attention

A

Learner watches trainer

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38
Q

Retention

A

trainer models response and learner thinks about response

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39
Q

Production

A

learner demonstrates response without trainer modeling it

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40
Q

Motivation

A

learner’s imitated behavior produces reinforcer

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41
Q

CONSCIOUSNESS

A

Subjective experience of the
world and the mind

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42
Q

Phenomenology

A

Study of how things seem to the conscious person

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43
Q

Intentionality

A

Being directed towards an object
* Conscious of something

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44
Q

Unity

A

Resists division and involves integration of
information from the senses to form a whole
* Gestalt psychology

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45
Q

Selectivity:

A

Capacity to include some objects at
the exclusion of others

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46
Q

Transience:

A

Tendency or inevitability to change

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47
Q

Self-consciousness:

A

Attention is drawn to the self as an object

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48
Q

Full consciousness:

A

Know and can report your mental state

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49
Q

Daydreaming:

A

State of consciousness in which a
seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts comes to
mind (frontal lobe involved)

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49
Q

Minimal consciousness

A

Low-level sensory awareness, responsiveness that occurs when the mind inputs sensations and may output behaviour

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50
Q

Vegetative State:

A

Patients alternate between
eyes-open and eyes-closed states

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51
Q

Locked-In Syndrome:

A

Patients have full awareness but no ability to voluntarily respond

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52
Q

Mental control

A

Attempt to change conscious states of mind

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53
Q

Thought suppression

A

Conscious avoidance of a thought

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54
Q

Conscious

A

aware

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55
Q

Unconscious

A

unaware

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56
Q

Cognitive Unconscious:

A

Mental processes tied to thoughts, choices, emotions, and behaviour even though the person is not aware of them

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57
Q

Dual-process Theories:

A

Two different systems in the brain for processing information

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58
Q

Automatic processing (System 1)

A
  • Minimal conscious processing
  • Fast but static
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59
Q

Controlled (effortful) processing (System 2)

A
  • Voluntary use of attention
  • Slow but flexible
60
Q

Conscious

A
  • Mental events we are currently aware of
61
Q

Preconscious

A
  • Events outside of current awareness; easily recalled
62
Q

Unconscious

A
  • Not brought into conscious awareness (usually)
63
Q

Dynamic Unconscious

A

A lifetime of hidden memories, instincts and urges, and the inner struggle to control these forces

64
Q

Defense Mechanisms

A

Distortions of reality from the ego (unconscious)

65
Q

Repression:

A

Removes anxiety-causing thoughts
and memories from consciousness and keeps
them in the unconscious

66
Q

Personal Unconscious (JUNG)

A

Freud’s unconscious

67
Q

Collective Unconscious

A

unconscious store of the experiences of past generations of different people throughout the world (ancestral knowledge)

68
Q

Altered States of Consciousness

A

Form of experience that departs from the normal
subjective experience of the world and the mind (SLEEP, HYPNOSIS)

69
Q

Hypnagogic State:

A

Pre-sleep consciousness

70
Q

Hypnic Jerk:

A

Sudden twitch or sensation of dropping, as if missing a step

71
Q

Hypnopompic State:

A

Post-sleep consciousness

72
Q

Electromyograph:

A

Record muscle activity

73
Q

Circadian Rhythm:

A

Endogenous daily (~24-hour) cycles in which biological processes fluctuate

  • Sleep and wakefulness
  • Temperature
  • Blood cell production
  • Hormone production
74
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

Records electrical activity in the brain

75
Q

Electrooculograph

A

Record eye movements

76
Q

Awake:

A

Characterized by high frequency BETA
waves

77
Q

Drowsy/relaxed

A

Beta waves gradually replaced by lower
frequency ALPHA waves as individual relaxes

78
Q

Stage 1:

A

Alpha and beta waves from wakefulness
transition to even lower frequency THETA waves

79
Q

Stage 2:

A

Brain waves slow, heart rate slows,
body temperature decreases, muscles relax, eye
movements cease (SLEEP SPINDLE, K COMPLEX)

80
Q

Functions of sleep

A

Memory consolidation
Feel rested
Body needs to rest

80
Q

Stages 3 and 4 (aka Slow-Wave Sleep):

A

Lowest frequency waves, delta waves, appear (DELTA ACTIVITY)

81
Q

Stage 5 (aka REM Sleep)

A

EEG patterns return to higher-frequency SAWTOOTH waves that resemble the beta waves of waking

82
Q

Sleep debt:

A

accumulated sleep loss over time

82
Q

Sleep deprivation:

A

missing required amount of restful sleep over one or more days

Increase inflammatory response, hunger
Decrease emotional control (amygdala), immune functioning

83
Q

Insomnia:

A

inability to fall asleep or to remain asleep

84
Q

Hypersomnia:

A

excessive sleepiness

85
Q

Sleep Apnea:

A

Reflexive gasping for air that awakens the sleeper

86
Q

Somnambulism:

A

Sleepwalking

87
Q

Narcolepsy:

A

Falling asleep uncontrollably

87
Q

Sleep Paralysis:

A

Wake up unable to move

88
Q

Nightmares:

A

anxiety-arousing dreams

89
Q

Night terrors:

A

intense arousal and panic

90
Q

Dreams

A

Mental experiences during sleep

91
Q

Psychoactive Drugs:

A

Chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains

92
Q

Agonist

A

Drugs that increase the activity of a neurotransmitter

93
Q

Antagonists

A

Drugs that inhibit or decrease the activity of a
neurotransmitter

94
Q

Depressants:

A

Drugs that reduce activity of central nervous system

Effects: calming effect, induce sleep in high doses, arrest breathing in extremely high doses

Alcohol

95
Q

Stimulants:

A

Drugs that excite the central nervous
system, heightening arousal and activity levels (caffeine, cocaine)

EFFECTS Increase the levels of dopamine and
norepinephrine and Increase Heart rate

96
Q

Narcotics (Opiates):

A

Drugs that relieve pain by imitating or affecting endogenous opioids (endorphins) (heroine)

97
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Drugs that alter sensation and perception
(LSD acid)

CAUSES visual and auditory hallucinations

98
Q

Hypnosis:

A

Systematic procedure that increases
suggestibility

99
Q

Meditation:

A

Practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental processes
under greater voluntary control

100
Q

MEMORIES

A

ability to store and retrieve information over time

101
Q

Encoding

A

The process of how information is initially learned

101
Q

Storage

A

The process of maintaining information over (a short or long) time

101
Q

Retrieval

A

The process involved in
recovering information
from memory to produce a
response

101
Q

Memory process

A

Encoding –> Storage –> Retrieval

101
Q

Semantic Encoding:

A

Actively relate new ideas to existing information in a meaningful way (lower left frontal lobe)

102
Q

Visual Imagery Encoding

A

Store new information as mental pictures (occipital lobe)

103
Q

Immediate Memory:

A

System that actively holds on to a limited amount of information so that it can be retained, manipulated, and processed

103
Q

Sensory memory:

A

system that keeps information
translated by the senses briefly active in a
relatively unaltered, unexamined form.

Iconic =visual
Echoic = auditory

104
Q

Organizational Encoding:

A

Categorize concepts according to relationships between them (upper-left frontal lobe)

105
Q

Short-Term Memory:

A

Storage of limited information for short periods of time

106
Q

Working Memory:

A

Active storage and
manipulation of limited information for short
periods of time

107
Q

Long-Term Memory:

A

Our “library” of memories
* Durable storage of past events and learned
knowledge
* Large storage capacity

108
Q

Episodic memory:

A

memories whose contents pertain to specific events or “episodes”

109
Q

Semantic memory:

A

memories whose contents relate to specific facts and pieces of meaningful information not based on personal experience

110
Q

Anterograde Amnesia:

A

Whats left over, cant add new memories into long term

Loss of ability to assimilate and retain new knowledge
* Failure to transfer new information from short-term store to long-term store

111
Q

Retrograde Amnesia:

A

Forget old stuff

Loss of memory for events that have happened in the past
* Failure to retrieve information that was stored in
long-term store, usually before a specific event

112
Q

Prospective memory:

A

Remembering to perform a task in the future

113
Q

Consolidation:

A

memories become stable in the brain

114
Q

Reconsolidation:

A

Memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled,
requiring them to become consolidated again

115
Q

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):

A

communication across the synapse
between neurons strengthens the connection,
making further communication easier

116
Q

Hyperthymesia

A

rare medical condition that leads to near-
perfect autobiographical recall

117
Q

Memory is reconstructive means

A

flexible and changeable overtime and easily influenced by small things in the environment and internally

118
Q

Serial Position Effect:

A

Describes the relationship between a word’s position in a list and its probability of recall

119
Q

Primacy Effect:

A

It’s easy to remember things at the beginning of the list

120
Q

Recency Effect:

A

It’s easy to remember things you’ve encountered most recently (end of the list)

121
Q

implicit vs explicit

A

explicit memory involves the conscious recall of information (run through hippocampus and head to cortex)

implicit memory occurs automatically outside of awareness (basal ganglia and down to cerebellum)

122
Q

4 Mnemonic devices

A

Simple, Semantic, Complex, Visual-based

123
Q

Interference Theory

A

Information forgotten because
other items in LTM impair
ability to retrieve it

124
Q

Emotion

A

Temporary mental state associated
with subjective evaluation of experiences and
physiological activation that prepares for action

124
Q

James Lange Theory

A

Eliciting
stimuli trigger autonomic nervous system, which
produces emotional experience in the brain

125
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion:

A

Physiological activation and
conscious emotion occur
simultaneously and independently

126
Q

Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory:

A

Eliciting stimuli trigger a general state of
physiological arousal we then interpret as a
specific emotion

127
Q

Instrumental Behaviours:

A

actions directed at
achieving a goal

128
Q

Action Tendencies:

A

tendency to engage in
specific emotion-relevant behaviours

129
Q

Expressive Behaviours:

A

Observable displays of
emotional state (i.e., facial expressions)

130
Q

Homeostasis:

A

Internal state of physiological
equilibrium or stability (HYPOTHALAMUS)

131
Q

Incentive:

A

an external goal that has the capacity
to motivate behaviour

132
Q

Hedonic Principle:

A

People are motivated to
experience pleasure and avoid pain

133
Q

Intrinsic Motivation:

A

performing an activity for its
own sake

134
Q

Extrinsic Motivation:

A

performing activity to
obtain external reward or to avoid punishment

135
Q

Psychodynamic theory

A

Behaviour driven by the anxiety created by the
conflict between unconscious instincts and our
internal defenses

136
Q

Humanistic theory

A

Two categories for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:
1. Deficiency Needs: things concerned with
physical and social survival
2. Growth Needs: unique to humans; push us to
develop our potential
* Strive for self-actualization

137
Q

Basal (Resting) Metabolism:

A

Amount of energy
required for base cell operation

138
Q

Set Point:

A

Biologically determined physiological
standard around which fat mass is regulated

139
Q

Orexigenic Signals:

A

More hungry

140
Q

Anorexigenic Signals:

A

Less hungry

141
Q

Ghrelin:

A

increases feelings of hunger and leads
to eating behaviours (HANGRY)

142
Q

Neuropeptide Y:

A

stimulates food intake

PSYCH 104 (6 decks)

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