Final Flashcards
________ correlation indicate that two factors increase or decrease together
positive
_________ correlations indicate that as one factor increases, the other decreases
negative
A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.
representative sample
A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group.
surveys
Highly detailed description of a single individual or a small group of individuals., used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions
case study
In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable.
experimental group
In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared.
control group
The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting.
naturalistic observation
The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment;
independent variable
The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable
dependent variable
behaviorism is the view the psychology:
Should be an objective science and study behaviors without taking mental processes into account
The __________ ____________ focuses on mental process, memory, perception, language, problem solving, and thinking
cognitive perspective
In an ____ ___________, the researcher deliberately varies one factor, then measures the changes produced in a second factor.
lab experiment
________ indicates that one event is the result of the occurrence of the other event; i.e. there is a causal relationship between the two events. This is also referred to as cause and effect.
causation
_______ _______ defined psychology as the study of consciousness and emphasized the use of experimental methods to study and measure consciousness.
Wilhelm Wundt
______ __. _________ believed that psychology is the study of behavior
John B Watson
founder of American Psychology, didn’t do experiments - only observations, stressed importance that behavior and consciousness function to allow people and animals to adapt to their environments
William James
studied the unconscious mind, founded psychoanalysis: the belief the repressed thoughts fuck you up but if you bring them to the surface they go away
Sigmund Frued
(similar to Watson) believed that psychology should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors that could be measured and verified, Believed that internal thoughts, beliefs, emotions, or motives could not be used to explain behavior
BF Skinner
- founded observational learning ie. learning by observing others, imitating models, and without direct experience
- led Bobo doll experiment
Albert Bandura
_________ _____ ___________ created the Law of Effect, which states that responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, and that responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation
Edward Lee Thorndike
_______ _______ developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological growth, autonomy, and a hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow
The support cells that assist neurons by providing structural support, nutrition, and removal of cell wastes; manufacture myelin.
glial cells
the part of a cell that processes nutrients and provides energy for the neuron to function; contains the cell’s nucleus
cell body
The multiple short fibers that extend from a neuron’s cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells
dendrites
The long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron’s messages to other neurons, muscles, and glands
axon
A white, fatty covering wrapped around the axons of some neurons that increases their communication speed
myelin sheath
the nucleus:
contains chromosomes
gaps in the myelin sheath
nodes of ranvier
the process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a post-synaptic neuron and are reabsorbed by a presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again
reuptake
The division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord.
central nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats
sympathetic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that maintains normal bodily functions and conserves the body’s physical resources.
parasympathetic nervous system
The principle that the strength by which a nerve or muscle fiber responds to a stimulus is not dependent on the strength of the stimulus. If the stimulus is any strength above threshold, the nerve or muscle fiber will either give a complete response or no response at all.
all-or-nothing principle
The ________ __________ is produced by movement of electrically charged particles (ions) across the axon membrane
action potential
A brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron
action potential
The state in which a neuron is prepared to activate and communicate its message if it receives sufficient stimulation
resting potential
The _____ hemisphere of the brain is specialized for language tasks
left
the ______ hemisphere of the brain is specialized for visual-spatial tasks
right
An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex, near the temples, that is the primary receiving area for auditory information
temporal lobe
An area at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that is the primary receiving area for visual information
occipital lobe
An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex located above the temporal lobe that processes somatic sensations
parietal lobe
The largest lobe of each cerebral hemisphere; processes voluntary muscle movements and is involved in thinking, planning, and emotional control.
frontal lobe
Chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron
neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitter involved in sensory perceptions, sleep, and emotions
serotonin
Neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of bodily movement, thought processes, and rewarding sensations.
dopamine
Neurotransmitters that regulate pain perceptions
endorphins
________________ are released from synaptic vesicles in synapses into the synaptic cleft, where they are received by receptors on the target cells.
Neurotransmitters
a difference in electric potential between two exteriors or two sides of one exterior due to chemical activity
polarization
sodium gates open and let sodium into the axon, causing the axon to be more positive that the outside
depolarization
potassium gates open and positive ions flow out of the axon, causing the inside of the axon to be more negative than the outside
repolarization
potassium gates stay open too long and too many positive ions flow out, making the axon super negative
hyperpolarization
controls muscle movements involved in speech
broca’s area
involved in language comprehension
wernicke’s area
when someone has too much serotonin in their brain they can develop _________ _______
serotonin syndrome
The degeneration of the neurons that produce dopamine in one brain area causes __________ ________
Parkinson’s disease
A hindbrain structure that controls vital life functions such as breathing and circulation
medulla
A hindbrain structure that connects the medulla to the two sides of the cerebellum; helps coordinate and integrate movements on each side of the body
pons
A large, two-sided hindbrain structure at the back of the brain; responsible for muscle coordination and maintaining posture and equilibrium
cerebellum
A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories
hippocampus
A forebrain structure that processes sensory information for all senses except smell, relaying that information to the cerebral cortex
thalamus
An almond-shaped cluster of neurons in the brain’s temporal lobe, involved in memory and emotional responses, especially fear.
amygdala
receives information of body sensations, a band of tissue on the parietal lobe
somatosensory cortex
controls voluntary movement, located in frontal lobe
motor cortex
the primary auditory cortex is located on the ________ lobe
temporal
the primary visual cortex is located on the _________ lobe
occipital
involved in the planning of voluntary movements
prefrontal cortex
Lara believes that the size of the just noticeable difference varies depending on its relation to the strength of the original stimulus. Her views are consistent with:
Weber’s Law
Two dimmer lights are being turned on, but one isn’t as strong as the other. The point at which Rudy can tell that one light is brighter than the other would be described as the _____.
just noticeable difference
During a hearing test, many sounds were presented at such a low level of intensity that Madeline could not detect them. These sounds were below Madeline’s _____.
absolute threshold
The smallest possible strength of a stimulus that can be detected half the time
absolute threshold
A principle of sensation that holds that the size of the just noticeable difference will vary depending on its relation to the strength of the original stimulus
Weber’s law
Giulio’s bag of marbles is twice as heavy as Lynn’s. If it takes 5 extra marbles to make Lynn’s bag feel heavier, it will take 10 extra marbles to make Giulio’s bag feel heavier. This best illustrates:
Weber’s law
The use of visual cues to perceive the distance or three-dimensional characteristics of objects.
depth perception
Distance or depth cues that can be processed by either eye alone.
monocular cues
___________ _______ ______ include relative size, overlap, aerial perspective, texture gradient, linear perspective, motion parallax, and accommodation
Monocular depth cues
Distance or depth cues that require the use of both eyes
binocular cues
___________ _______ ______ include convergence and binocular disparity
Binocular depth cues
The process by which a form of physical energy is converted into a coded neural signal that can be processed by the nervous system
transduction
While strolling through the garden, Jamal suddenly notices the beautiful scent of roses. Jamal is using his _____ sense, and the process by which the odor is converted into neural signals that his brain understands is called _____.
olfactory, transduction
Michael opens his eyes in the morning to see the alarm clock on his dresser. At that point, his eyes are receiving light energy, which they change into neural messages for the brain. This conversion of one form of energy into another is called _____.
transduction
A specialized cell or group of nerve endings that responds to sensory stimuli
receptor cells
A small area in the center of the retina, composed entirely of cones, where visual information is most sharply focused
fovea
A clear membrane covering the visible part of the eye that helps gather and direct incoming light
cornea
A thin, light-sensitive membrane, located at the back of the eye, that contains the sensory receptors for vision
retina
The long, thin, blunt sensory receptors of the eye that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color, and that are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and night vision
rods
_____ are used for vision in dim light and for peripheral vision
Rods
The short, thick, pointed sensory receptors of the eye that detect color and are responsible for color vision and visual acuity.
cones
______ are used for color vision, for vision in bright light, and for seeing fine details
Cones
This German word means a unified whole, form, or shape.
Gesalt
Information processing that emphasizes the importance of the sensory receptors in detecting the basic features of a stimulus in the process of recognizing a whole pattern; analysis that moves from the parts to the whole
bottom-up processing
Information processing that emphasizes the importance of the observer’s knowledge, expectations, and other cognitive processes in arriving at meaningful perceptions; analysis that moves from the whole to the parts
top-down processing
The tendency to perceive objects, especially familiar objects, as constant and unchanging despite changes in sensory input
perceptual constancy
School of psychology that maintained that our sensations are actively processed according to consistent perceptual rules, producing meaningful whole perceptions
Gestalt psychology
humans get __________ _________ because we have two eyes that are slightly spaced apart on our faces, we get a slightly different view of the world from each
binocular disparity
The binocular cue that relies on the degree to which muscles rotate the eyes to focus on an object is _____.
convergence
In a local psychology experiment, the research assistant asks participants to hold two pencils in front of them and touch the tips together. She then asks participants to do this with one eye closed. They find this difficult, which demonstrates the importance of _____ cues.
binocular
Darrell has just arrived at the beach. The sand beneath his feet is rough and uneven, and he can see individual small stones, sea shells, and other debris. However, the texture of the sand toward the water appears smooth, even, and perfectly flat. He is experiencing the monocular distance cue of:
texture gradient
The theory that color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors: red–green, blue–yellow, and black–white; when one member of a color pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited.
opponent process theory
The ________ nerve carries information to the thalamus and auditory cortex in the brain
auditory
The optic nerve fibers exit the back of each retina at the optic disk and meet at the optic chiasm, where some of the fibers cross over to the opposite side of the brain and then transmit information from the ________ to the visual cortex
thalamus
The theory that the sensation of color results because cones in the retina are especially sensitive to red light (long wavelengths), green light (medium wavelengths), or blue light (short wavelengths).
trichromatic theory of color vision
The specialized sensory receptors for taste that are located on the tongue and inside the mouth and throat
taste buds
During stage __ NREM, you can quickly regain conscious alertness if needed
1
Breathing becomes rhythmical. Slight muscle twitches may occur. Theta waves are predominant in stage __, but larger, slower brain waves, called delta brain waves, also begin to emerge.
2
When delta brain waves represent more than 20 percent of total brain activity, the sleeper is said to be in stage __ NREM
3
When delta brain waves exceed 50 percent of total brain activity, the sleeper is said to be in stage __ NREM.
4
Dreams usually occur during ____ sleep
REM
REM sleep lasts about __ to __ minutes
5-15
Typical __ minute sleep schedule alternating between REM and NREM
90
Quiet, typically dreamless sleep
NREM
A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus in the brain that governs the timing of circadian rhythms
suprachiasmatic nucleus
the function of the suprachiasmatic nucleus is to control your circadian rhythm
circadian rhythm
________ _________ refers to a biological or psychological process that systematically varies over the course of each day
Circadian Rhythm
A cooperative social interaction in which the hypnotized person responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions with changes in perception, memory, and behavior hypnosis
hypnosis
________ produces a highly focused, absorbed state of attention that minimizes competing thoughts and attention
hypnosis
The best candidates for hypnosis are individuals who approach the experience with ________, receptive attitudes
positive
Supposed enhancement of memory for past events through hypnotic suggestion
hypermnesia
if one does not believe in hypnosis
they cannot be hypnotized
A suggestion made during hypnosis asking a person to carry out a specific instruction following the hypnotic session
posthypnotic suggestion
Any one of a number of sustained concentration techniques that focus attention and heighten awareness
meditation
A condition in which a person has physically adapted to a drug so that he or she must take the drug regularly in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms.
physical dependence
Produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, and self confidence, blocks the reuptake of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, blocking reuptake potentiates or increases effects of neurotransmitters
cocaine
Produce feelings of euphoria, occupy endorphin receptors sites in the brain, mimicking the effect of endorphins, alter reaction to pain by reducing the brain’s perception of pain
heroin and morphine (opiates)
Increases neural activity in many brain areas because of the increase ion Ach, Increases mental alertness and reduces fatigue or drowsiness - Including the frontal lobes, thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala
nicotine
Promotes wakefulness, mental alertness, vigilance, and faster thought processes, Stimulants dopamine in brain’s prefrontal cortex, Blocks adenosine receptors in brain, blocking your urge to sleep
caffeine
__________ _______ alter consciousness by changing arousal, mood, thinking, sensations, and perceptions
Psychoactive drugs
drugs that depress, or inhibit, brain activity
depressants
drugs that are chemically similar to morphine and that relieve pain and produce euphoria
opiods
drugs that stimulate, or excite, brain activity
stimulants
Produces a mild euphoria, talkativeness, and feelings of good humor and friendliness, lessens inhibitions by depressing brain centers responsible for judgement and self-control
activation, persistence, and intensity
Unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense drug cravings, that occur when a person abstains from a drug on which he or she is physically dependent
withdrawal symptoms
the __________ _________ releases dopamine when we do drugs
nucleus acumbens
condition in which a person feels psychologically and physically compelled to take a specific drug
Addiction
The view that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming
Instinct theories
the view that behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs.
drive theory
The principle of _________ states that the body monitors and maintains relatively constant levels of internal states, such as body temperature, fluid levels, and energy supplies
homeostatis
behavior is motivated by the “pull” of external goals, such as rewards, money, or recognition
incentive theory
This can vary from one person to the next based on one’s self-evaluation - intelligence, attractiveness, physical abilities, etc
incentive theory limitation
The view that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that is optimal—neither too high nor too low
arousal theory
When arousal is too _____ we seek to reduce arousal in a ____-stimulating enviroment
high; less
people with low levels of arousal can be _________ _______
sensation seekers
physiological needs (food, water), safety needs (security), belongingness and love needs (intimate relationships and love needs), esteem needs (prestige and feelings of accomplishment), self actualization (achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities)
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Vague and almost impossible to define in a way that would allow it to be scientifically tested
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs limitations
Deci and Ryan’s theory that optimal human functioning can occur only if the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied
self-determination theory
external influences on behavior, such as rewards, social evaluations, rules, and responsibilities
Extrinsic motivation
desire to engage in tasks that person finds inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging
Intrinsic motivation
disruptive forces that interfere with rational behavior
emotions
A complex psychological state that involves a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral or expressive response
emotion
Several studies have shown that the _______ is a key brain structure in the emotional response of fear in humans
amygdala
direct thalamus→amygdala pathway “shortcut”
LeDoux’s neural pathway
We perceive a stimulus, physiological and behavioral changes occur, we experience these changes as a particular emotion
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
emotions and bodily changes do not share a cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, they occur simultaneously, following a stimulating event
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Expressing a specific emotion, especially facially, causes us to subjectively experience that emotion
Facial Feedback Theory
emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain arousal
Schachter-Singer Two-factor theory of emotion
emotions result from cognitive appraisal of a situation’s effect on personal well-being
Lazarus Cognitive Meditational Theory
One pathway leads to an area of the _________, then on to the _______ at the base of the brain - this triggers arousal of the _________ _________ _________.
hypothalamus; medulla; sympathetic nervous system
Another pathway projects from the ________ to a different _________ area that, in concert with the pituitary gland, triggers the release of stress hormones
amygdala; hypothalamus
agree with James-Lange positive correlation between sensitivity to internal body signals and anxiety and other negative emotions
but also agree with Cannon-Bard that the same pattern of physiological arousal can give rise to different emotions
Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion - difference with James-Lange Theory
- Our emotional reaction to a stimulus is often faster than our physiological reaction.
weakness of James-Lange Theory
The pounding heart, rapid breathing, trembling hands and feet, and churning stomach that occur when you experience an intense emotion like fear reflect the activation of the
sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system
The _________ _________ _________ is also activated by other intense emotions, such as excitement, passionate love, or extreme joy
sympathetic nervous system
_______ tend to be much more at ease expressing their emotions, thinking about emotions, and recalling emotional experiences
Women
______ __ ________ believed that virtually all human behavior is a result of conditioning and learning—that is, due to past experience and environmental influences.
John B. Watson
school of thought pioneered by B. F. Skinner that argues that behavior, rather than mental states, should be the focus of study in psychology
radical behaviorism
The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well
stimulus generalization
The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli
stimulus discrimination
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
conditioning
The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
unconditioned (unlearned/natural) stimulus
A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
conditioned stimulus
The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus
conditioned (learned) response
the operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed
shaping
training an animal to perform a complex trick
example of shaping
You are more likely to imitate a behavior if there is some expectation that doing so will produce reinforcement or reward.
role of motivation in observational learning
Bandura suggests that _________, _________, _________, and _________ interact to determine whether imitation will occur
Attention; Retention; Motor reproduction; Reinforcement or incentive conditions
watching someone be reinforced/punished
Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
In _________ reinforcement situations, a response is a strengthened because something is added or presented
positive
In ________ reinforcement situations, a response is strengthened because something is being subtracted or removed
negitave
involves following a operant with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus.
Positive reinforcement
involves an operant that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.
Negative reinforcement
A situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus
Punishment by application / positive punishment
A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus
Punishment by removal / negative punishment
- A mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework (behavior).
- The little boy receives $5.00 (reinforcing stimulus) for every A he earns on his report card (behavior).
- A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior).
examples of positive reinforcement
- Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to stop his mother’s nagging (aversive stimulus).
- Natalie can get up from the dinner table (aversive stimulus) when she eats 2 bites of her broccoli (behavior).
- Joe presses a button (behavior) that turns off a loud alarm (aversive stimulus)
examples of negative reinforcement
- A child picks his nose during class (behavior) and the teacher reprimands him (aversive stimulus) in front of his classmates.
- A child touches a hot stove (behavior) and feels pain (aversive stimulus).
- A person eats spoiled food (behavior) and gets a bad taste in his/her mouth (aversive stimulus).
examples of positive punishment
- A child kicks a peer (behavior), and is removed from his/her favorite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed)
- A child yells out in class (behavior), loses a token for good behavior on his/her token board (reinforcing stimulus removed) that could have later be cashed in for a prize.
- A child fights with her brother (behavior) and has her favorite toy taken away (reinforcing stimulus removed).
examples of negative punishment
- Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses (every so many)
- Buy 10 coffee drinks, get the 11th free
- Produces high rates of responding
Fixed Ratio Response
- Reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses (after an unpredictable number)
- Slot machine gambling (“Lurkers” time the slot machines to swoop in win people who haven’t won yet leave)
- Produces high rates of responding
- Very difficult to extinguish
Variable-Ratio Schedule
- Reinforce first response after a fixed time period (every so often)
- Checking for snail mail, cramming for a test
- Produces a choppy start-stop pattern of responding
Fixed-Interval Schedules
- Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals (unpredictably often)
- Checking for email
- Produces slow, steady responding
- Most difficult Extinction of Response
Variable-Interval Schedules
Imagine that parents punish their son for not cleaning his room. He eventually learns to clean up his messes to avoid punishment. Instead of having to relearn this behavior at school, he applies the same principles he learned at home to his classroom behavior and cleanes up his messes before the teacher can punish him.
example of stimulus generalization in operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, ___________ ____________ explains how we can learn something in one situation and apply it to other similar situations
stimulus generalization
a dog that has learned to sit when a person says “sit” in order to receive a treat, but the dog does not sit when a person says “bit”.
example of stimulus discriminaton in operant conditioning
if Pavlov’s dog had developed discrimination, it would have salivated to the tone that had been paired with the delivery of the meat powder, and not a similar tone with a slightly different pitch.
example of stimulus discriminaton in classical conditioning
Little Albert’s fear of white furry objects is a great example of how stimulus ____________ works in classical conditioning
generalization
