Exam 5 Flashcards
environmental information is registered, large capacity for information, duration: 1/4 second-3 seconds
sensory memory
new information is transferred from sensory memory, old information is retrieved from long-term memory, limited capacity for information, duration: approximately 20-30 seconds
short-term (working) memory
information that was been encoded in short term memory is stored, unlimited capacity for information, duration: potentially permanent
long term memory
The process of transforming information into a form that can be entered into and retained by the memory system
encoding
The process of retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time
storage
the process of recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it
retrieval
The mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20-second duration of short-term memory
maintenance rehearsal
Rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term memory
elaborative rehearsal
_____-____ memory is more likely to be used when the focus is on simpler memory processes, such as rehearsing lists of syllables, words, or numbers
working term
tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle
The Serial Position Effect
Increasing the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory by grouping related items together into a single unit,
chunking
The temporary storage and active, conscious manipulation of information needed for complex cognitive tasks, such as reasoning, learning, and problem solving.
working memory
the __________ _____, is specialized for verbal material, such as lists of numbers or words
phonological loop
the ___________ ___________, is specialized for spatial or visual material
visuospatial sketchpad
the ________ ________ controls attention, integrates information, and manages activities of phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Central executive
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular/specific events
episodic memory
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge, concepts, facts, and names; general knowledge
semantic memory
Category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions; muscle memory
procedural memory
tendency to recover information more easily when the retrieval occurs in the same setting as the original learning of the information
context effect
Organizing items into related groups during recall from long-term memory
clustering
An encoding specificity phenomenon in which a given mood tends to evoke memories that are consistent with that mood
mood congruence
When you are in a good mood, you remember good memories
example of mood congurence
A memory phenomenon that involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory, but being temporarily unable to retrieve it
tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experience
The recall of very specific images or details surrounding a vivid, rare, or significant personal event; details may or may not be accurate
flashbulb memory
_________ ________ are emotionally charged, but they are not necessarily more accurate than memories of more common events
flashbulb memories
Can’t retrieve the partial responses that you absolutely know are stored in your LTM, People have one experience per week, 50% of the time people can name the first letter of the word or amount of syllables , 90% of experiences are resolved
tip of the tongue facts
phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed
state dependent memory
memory retrieval while in consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs – most commonly, alcohol
state dependent memory
Information or knowledge that can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory.
explicit memory
Information or knowledge that affects behavior or task performance but cannot be consciously recollected; also called non-declarative memory
implicit memory
memory that involves remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point in time
prospective memory
A test of long-term memory that involves identifying correct information out of several possible choices
recognition
A test of long-term memory that involves retrieving information without the aid of retrieval cues;
recall
A test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
cued recall
memory consolidation into long term memory happens while we:
sleep
The inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory
encoding failure
When incorrect information received after an event leads to distorted or false memories of the event
Misinformation effect
Forgetting or misremembering the true source of a memory
Source Confusion
Forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory; forward-acting memory interference
proactive interference
when new phone number interferes with the ability to remember old phone number and when you have memories of where you parked your car on campus last week and now you can’t remember where you parked it today
examples of proactive interference
Forgetting in which a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory; backward-acting memory interference
retroactive interference
The view that forgetting is due to normal metabolic processes that occur in the brain over time - use it or lose it
decay theory
imagining something and really perceiving it activate similar brain areas
Imagination inflation
False or distorted memories caused by the tendency to fill in missing memory details with information that is consistent with existing knowledge about a topic
Schema (script) Distortion
Increased feelings of familiarity due to repeatedly imagining an event
False Familiarity
Using vivid, authentic details to add to the legitimacy and believability of a pseudoevent
Blending fact and fiction
Blending fact and fiction, False Familiarity, Schema Distortion, Imagination inflation, and Source Confusion
causes of false memories
encoding failure, misinformation effect, source confusion, proactive interference, retroactive interference, and the decay theory
causes of forgetting
inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consultation
Retrograde amnesia
inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage
Anterograde amnesia
_________ __.__. had portions of the medial (inner) temporal lobe on each side of his brain, including the brain structure called the hippocampus, removed
Patient H.M. (Henry Molaison)
British musicologist, conductor, tenor and keyboardist who suffers from chronic anterograde and retrograde amnesia - lacks the ability to form new memories, and also cannot recall aspects of his past memories, frequently believing that he has only recently awoken from a comatose state.
Clive Wearing
Motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness.
repression
therapeutic approach assumed that incidents of sexual and physical abuse experienced in childhood, especially when perpetrated by a trusted caregiver, were so psychologically threatening that the victims repressed all memories of the experience
repressed memory therapy
Consequently, the use of highly suggestive techniques to recover memories of abuse raises serious concerns about the accuracy of such memories.
problem with repressed memory therapy
_________ ___________ found that memories for simple classically conditioned responses are localized in the cerebellum
Richard Thompson
(incorrect theory) that concluded that memories are not localized in specific locations but instead are distributed or stored, throughout the brain; found that maze-learning in rats was distributed throughout the brain
Lashley
Simultaneous activation of neurons that strengthens memory, long-lasting strengthening of synapses between nerve cells
Long-term potentiation
Scientists use ______ ______ ___________ to explain the memories humans hold long term.
Long-term potentiation
without ______ ______ ___________ learning might be impossible
Long-term potentiation
Mice that lack an enzyme needed for ______ ______ ___________ cannot navigate a maze, Rats that ingest an ______ ______ ___________ -enhancing drug learn a maze with half the number of usual mistakes
Long-term potentiation
The__________, which is situated very close to the hippocampus, is involved in encoding and storing the emotional qualities associated with particular memories, such as fear or anger
amygdala
normal monkeys are afraid of snakes. But if the _________ is damaged, a monkey loses its fear of snakes and other natural predators.
amygdala
The _______ ______ are involved in retrieving and organizing information that is associated with autobiographical and episodic memories
frontal lobes
The _______ ________ ______ are involved in encoding complex memories, by forming links among the information stored in multiple brain regions
medial temporal lobes
The __________ is used in forming new explicit memories for episodic and semantic information.
hippocampus
mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge
Cognition
___________ ___________ is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor.
Cognitive psychology
___________ ___________ try to build up cognitive models of the information processing that goes on inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.
Cognitive psychologists
The __________ __________ was an intellectual movement that began in the 1950s as an interdisciplinary study of the mind and its processes, which became known collectively as cognitive science.
cognitive revolution
representation of objects or events that are not present
Mental image/ visualization
People seem to manipulate _______ _______ in the same way that they manipulate their visual images of actual objects
mental images
mental category formed by a learning rules
Formal concepts
mental category formed by everyday experience
Natural concept
“squares” are defined as “two-dimensional objects with four equal sides and four internal 90-degree angles.”
example of formal concept
________ ________ are often described as being automatic and ‘second nature’.
Natural concepts
The most typical instance of a particular concept
ex) hearing fruit and thinking apple
prototype
Thinking and behavior directed toward attaining a goal that is not readily available
problem solving
A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work
trial and error
A problem-solving strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method that inevitably produces the correct solution
algorithm
A problem-solving strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions
heuristic
sudden realization of how a problem can be solved
Insight
coming to a conclusion or making a judgement without conscious awareness of the thought processes involved
Intuition
choosing a topic, locating information about the topic, organizing the information, and so on
example of a subgoal
A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event
representativeness heuristic
If the accused looks like what the jurors think a criminal should look like, with a menacing presence, scruffy face, and angry eyes, they might be more likely to perceive that individual as guilty of the crime of which he or she is accused.
example of representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to a given person’s mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision
availability heuristic
After seeing news stories about child abductions, people may judge that the likelihood of this event is greater.
example of availability heuristic
Refers to the tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way, Often prevents seeing the full range of ways in which an object can be used
Functional fixedness
When we can’t move beyond old, inappropriate heuristics, ideas, or problem-solving strategies, ________ can block the generation of new, more effective approaches
fixation
the tendency to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring evidence that might contradict or undermine the belief
confirmation bias
tendency of people to overestimate their ability to have predicted an outcome that could not possibly have been predicted.
hindsight bias
tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past
Mental set
hitting your tv to try and make it work
example of mental set
manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions
Thinking
make a decision by focusing on only one feature
Single feature model
my bff is going to that college so I will go there as well
example of single feature model decision making
evaluate the important features of each alternative
Additive model
evaluate all of the alternatives one characteristic at a time, typically starting with the feature one considers most important
Elimination by aspects model
Your list of important factors might include cost, proximity to campus, compatibility with roommates, or having a private bathroom. Then, you rate each alternative for each factor using an arbitrary scale, such as from –5 to +5.
example of additive model
you want to buy a new computer. You might initially eliminate all the models that aren’t powerful enough to run the software you need to use, then the models outside your budget, and so forth. Continuing in this fashion, you would progressively narrow down the range of possible choices to the one choice that satisfies all your criteria.
example of elimination by aspects model
The hypothesis that differences among languages cause differences in the thoughts of their speakers.
linguistic relativity hypothesis
Every language has its own unique_______, or set of rules for combining words.
syntax
Although you’re usually unaware of your _______ as you’re speaking or writing, you immediately notice when a rule has been violated.
syntax
A system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statement
language
The study of animal learning, memory, thinking, and language.
animal cognition or comparative cognition
the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment.
intelligence
Alfred Binet invented intelligence tests to:
help identify “slow” children
A measurement of intelligence in which an individual’s mental level is expressed in terms of the average abilities of a given age group
mental age
number is derived by dividing the individual’s mental age by the chronological age and multiplying the result by 100
IQ
the WAIS test was specifically designed for adults, rather than for children and Wechsler’s test provided scores on 11 subtests measuring different abilities.
advantages of WAIS test compared to IQ test
The ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions.
reliability
the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
validity
A bell-shaped distribution of individual differences in a normal population in which most scores cluster around the average score.
normal curve or normal distribution
The administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms
standardization
The notion of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability
(g factor) general intelligence
psychologist that found specific mental talents were highly correlated, and concluded that all cognitive abilities showed a common core which he labeled ‘g’ factor (general ability)
Charles Spearman’s theory
there are multiple different “primary mental abilities,” each a relatively independent element of intelligence.
Louis Thurstone’s theory
“Different tasks call on different intelligences or combinations of intelligence. To perform music intelligently involves a different set of intelligences than preparing a meal, planning a course, or resolving a quarrel.”
Howard Gardner’s theory
Naturalist (nature smart), Musical (sound smart), Logical-mathematical (number/reasoning smart), Interpersonal (people smart), Bodily-kinesthetic (body smart), Linguistic (word smart), Intra-personal (self smart), Spatial (picture smart)
8 intelligences
the ________ ________ distinguishes three aspects of intelligence: analytic skills, such as the ability to think abstractly and evaluate information; creativity, the ability to invent novel solutions or ideas; and practical skills, which enable one to cope with concrete situations
triarchic theory
identical twins reared together are more alike than are fraternal twins reared together.
The more closely two individuals are related genetically, the more similar their IQ scores
The percentage of variation within a given population that is due to heredity
heritability
A psychological predicament in which fear that you will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong creates anxiety and self-doubt, lowering performance in a particular domain that is important to you.
stereotype threat
Sheila has just moved to a new home and calls the postal service to have her mail forwarded. When asked for her new address, she instinctively gives her old address. This example of _____ interference means that Sheila’s ability to remember her new address is being affected by her memory of her old address.
proactive
guiding stage & integrative stage
two-stage model of intuition
a representation of the pattern becomes conscious, usually in the form of a hunch of hypothesis
integrative stage
perceive a pattern in the information you’re considering, but not consciously
guiding stage
designed to measure a person’s level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area
achievement test
designed to assess a person’s capacity to benefit from education or training
aptitude test
Individual instances of a concept or category, held in memory
examplers
setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate problems in order to reach a final goal or solution
reasoning or decision making
