Exam 4 Flashcards
A process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of past experience
learning
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
conditioning
_____ ______ was looking at salivation in dogs in response to being fed, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food.
Ivan Pavlov
The unlearned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
The natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning
unconditioned (unlearned/natural) stimulus
A formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response
conditioned stimulus
The learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus
conditioned (learned) response
The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well
stimulus generalization
The occurrence of a learned response to a specific stimulus but not to other, similar stimuli
stimulus discrimination
Behaviorism is the view that psychology:
Should be an objective science
Studies behaviors without taking mental processes into account
A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus from one learning trial functions as the unconditioned stimulus in a new conditioning trial; the second conditioned stimulus comes to elicit the conditioned response, even though it has never been directly paired with the unconditioned stimulus
higher order conditioning also called second-order conditioning
In learning theory, the idea that an organism is innately predisposed to form associations between certain stimuli and responses
biological preparedness
But many people develop _______ without having experienced a traumatic event in association with the object of their fear, this is caused by __________ learning
phobias; observational
The gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior- In operant conditioning, _______ occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer
extinction (in operant conditioning)
The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
spontaneous recovery
A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
taste aversion
a classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food - this shows survival value
John Garcia’s research
both the physical characteristics and the natural behavior patterns of any species have been shaped by evolution to maximize adaptation to the environment.
evolutionary view of classical conditioning
Seligman proposed that humans are _________ _________ to develop fears of objects or situations—such as snakes, spiders, and heights—that may once have posed a threat to humans’ evolutionary ancestors.
biologically prepared
If you’re feeling more awake before blood levels of caffeine rise, it’s probably because you’ve developed a _________ __________ __________ to the sight, smell, and taste of coffee
classically conditioned response
If the animal was allowed a period of rest after the response was extinguished, the __________ __________ would reappear when the conditioned stimulus was again presented.
conditioned response
______ __ ________ believed that virtually all human behavior is a result of conditioning and learning—that is, due to past experience and environmental influences.
John B. Watson
I should like to go one step further now and say, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.
John B Watson
John Watson placed a rat on the table in front of ______ ______, who did not react. He then began making a loud noise on several separate occasions while showing ______ _______ the rat. He cried in reaction to the noise and, after a period of conditioning, cried in response to the rat even without the loud noise.
Little Albert
The Little Albert experiment is an example of:
classical conditioning
“To make your consumer react tell him something that will tie him up with fear, something that will stir up a mild rage, that will call out an affectionate or love response, or strike at a deep psychological or habit need”
John B Watson on advertising and classical conditioning
If _________ __________ occurs, the product will also elicit a warm, emotional response without the ad
classical conditioning
An individual’s psychological and physiological response to what is actually a fake treatment or drug
placebo response
A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food
taste aversion
classically conditioned dislike/avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating a food
John Garcia’s theory on taste aversion
differences between taste aversion and classical conditioning
taste aversion does not does require repeated pairings and the time span between these two stimuli the eating of food and the stomach virus is several hours, not a matter of seconds
Learning principle in which responses followed by a satisfying effect become strengthened and are more likely to recur in a particular situation, while responses followed by a dissatisfying effect are weakened and less likely to recur in a particular situation.
Law of effect - Thorndike
________ ________ demonstrated that classical conditioning involves more than learning the simple association of two stimuli.
Robert Rescorla
classical conditioning depends on the information the conditioned stimulus provides about the unconditioned stimulus - animals use cognitive processes to draw inferences about the signals they encounter in their environments
Rescorla’s theory
the conditioned stimulus must be a reliable signal that _______ the presentations of the unconditioned stimulus.
predicts
one group of rats heard a tone (the conditioned stimulus) that was paired 20 times with a brief electric shock (the unconditioned stimulus). A second group of rats experienced the same number of tone and this group also experienced an additional 20 shocks with no tone -Then Rescorla tested for the conditioned fear response by presenting the tone alone to each group of rats. Because each group had received 20 tone-shock pairings, both groups should have displayed the same levels of conditioned fear. However, the rats in the first group displayed a much stronger fear response to the tone than did the rats in the second group.
rats are scared of the tone because it is a reliable signal that pain will occur
The \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ systematically considers biological, psychological, and social factors and their complex interactions in understanding health, illness, and health care delivery.
biopsychosocial approach
__________ _________ to classical conditioning support the biopsychosocial
Biological constraints
The basic learning process that involves changing the probability that a response will be repeated by manipulating the consequences of that response
operant conditioning - voluntary
The basic learning process that involves repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response
classical conditioning - involuntary
A cat could escape the cage by a simple act, such as pulling a loop or pressing a lever that would unlatch the cage door. A plate of food was placed just outside the cage, where the hungry cat could see and smell it.
puzzle box experiment
Thorndike concluded that the cats did not display any humanlike insight or reasoning in unlatching the puzzle box door. Instead, he explained the cats’ learning as a process of ______ ____ ______
trial and error
Believed that internal thoughts, beliefs, emotions, or motives could not be used to explain behavior
Skinner’s theory
Believed that psychology should restrict itself studying only phenomena that could be objectively measured and verified - outwardly observable behavior and environmental events
Skinner’s theory
“any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences”
operant - Skinner
involves following a operant with the addition of a reinforcing stimulus.
Positive reinforcement
involves an operant that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.
Negative reinforcement
Operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until goal behavior is displayed
shaping
training an animal to perform a complex trick
example of shaping
A situation in which an operant is followed by the presentation or addition of an aversive stimulus
Punishment by application / positive punishment
A situation in which an operant is followed by the removal or subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus
Punishment by removal / negative punishment
- Must be applied immediately
- Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior
- May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear
- Results likely to be temporary
- May model aggression
problems with punishment
involve physical or psychological discomfort that an organism seeks to escape or avoid.
Aversive stimuli
- A mother gives her son praise (reinforcing stimulus) for doing homework (behavior).
- The little boy receives $5.00 (reinforcing stimulus) for every A he earns on his report card (behavior).
- A father gives his daughter candy (reinforcing stimulus) for cleaning up toys (behavior).
examples of positive reinforcement
- Bob does the dishes (behavior) in order to stop his mother’s nagging (aversive stimulus).
- Natalie can get up from the dinner table (aversive stimulus) when she eats 2 bites of her broccoli (behavior).
- Joe presses a button (behavior) that turns off a loud alarm (aversive stimulus)
examples of negative reinforcement
- A child picks his nose during class (behavior) and the teacher reprimands him (aversive stimulus) in front of his classmates.
- A child touches a hot stove (behavior) and feels pain (aversive stimulus).
- A person eats spoiled food (behavior) and gets a bad taste in his/her mouth (aversive stimulus).
examples of positive punishment
- A child kicks a peer (behavior), and is removed from his/her favorite activity (reinforcing stimulus removed)
- A child yells out in class (behavior), loses a token for good behavior on his/her token board (reinforcing stimulus removed) that could have later be cashed in for a prize.
- A child fights with her brother (behavior) and has her favorite toy taken away (reinforcing stimulus removed).
examples of negative punishment
A stimulus or event that is naturally or inherently reinforcing for a given species
primary reinforcer
food, water, or other biological necessities
examples of primary reinforcers
A stimulus or event that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer
conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)
- Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses (every so many)
- Buy 10 coffee drinks, get the 11th free
- Produces high rates of responding
Fixed Ratio Response
- Reinforce behavior after an unpredictable number of responses (after an unpredictable number)
- Slot machine gambling (“Lurkers” time the slot machines to swoop in win people who haven’t won yet leave)
- Produces high rates of responding
- Very difficult to extinguish
Variable-Ratio Schedule
- Reinforce first response after a fixed time period (every so often)
- Checking for snail mail, cramming for a test
- Produces a choppy start-stop pattern of responding
Fixed-Interval Schedules
- Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals (unpredictably often)
- Checking for email
- Produces slow, steady responding
- Most difficult Extinction of Response
Variable-Interval Schedules
naturally occurring behaviors that interfere with operant responses
instinctive drift
The principle of _________ ______ prevented the animals from engaging in the learned behaviors that would result in reinforcement
instinctive drift
Early behaviorists believed firmly believed that general laws of operant conditioning applied to all animal species. -they were wrong and we know believe that each species is biologically prepared to learn associations - such as humans’ fear of spiders and snakes - that enhance its survival
ways that biological predispositions can affect learning by classical conditioning
A phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior - The cognitive expectation that behavior would have no effect on the environment causes a person or animal to become passive
Learned helplessness
perform an operant response that gets you away from an ongoing aversive stimulus
Escape behavior
perform an operant response that prevents that occurrence of an aversive stimulus
Avoidance behavior
Tolman’s term for learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement but is not behaviorally demonstrated until a reinforcer becomes available
latent learning
Tolman’s term for the mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment
cognitive map
_________ demonstrated that animals learn a cognitive map of a maze instead of a series of responses
Tolman
Learning that occurs through observing the actions of others
observational learning
watching someone be reinforced/punished
Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment
You are more likely to imitate a behavior if there is some expectation that doing so will produce reinforcement or reward.
role of motivation in observational learning
Bandurasuggests that _________, _________, _________, and _________ interact to determine whether imitation will occur
Attention; Retention; Motor reproduction; Reinforcement or incentive conditions
Children watching a violent video clip seemed to imitate aggressive behavior
Bobo Doll experiment
The ______ ______ experiment demonstrated the principle that expectation of reinforcement (by watching someone being rewarded) can act to reinforce behavior
Bobo Doll
Abusive parents model aggression to their children and perpetuate a cycle of violence, The media can model violence as acceptable, or even “cool” rather than be harmful
examples of anti-social influence
Observed reinforcers and punishment may influence some differently based on one’s past history of reinforcement - people have to acquire information about the situation and interpret the situation - one’s history is also influential
Cognitive Aspects of Observational Learning
Neurons that activate both when an action is performed and when the same action is perceived
mirror neurons
Recorded from monkey motor cortex cells as monkey watched a lab assistant pick up a peanut, a neuron fired in the monkey’s brain - the same neuron that fired when the monkey itself picked up a peanut
example of how mirror neurons work
In _________ reinforcement situations, a response is a strengthened because something is added or presented
positive
In ________ reinforcement situations, a response is strengthened because something is being subtracted or removed
negitave
