Final Flashcards
Type of questions asked in comparative politics
Cause-effect; why
Empirical
Ask and explain why the world is the way it is
Normative
How the world ought to be
Concepts
Abstract ideas we use to think about the phenomena, facts and processes we study
Good concepts are
Clear, coherent, consistent, useful
Conceptualization
Process of creating and selecting social science concepts we want to use
Operationalization
Process of making basic concepts measurable
Challenges of measurement
Validity- extent that a measure captures what we are researching
Reliability- extent that a measure produces consistent results
Theory
Explanation for political phenomena
Hypothesis
Specific and empirically testable prediction that is often derived from a theory
Empirical evidence
Facts supporting an argument
Correlation
Relationship between two variables in which they tend to move in a predictable relationship to one another
Causation
Relationship between two variables in which change in one variable causes change in another
Comparative politics
Su field of political science that explains political phenomena using the comparative method
Omitted variable
Z–>X & Z–>Y
Reverse causation
X
Endogeneity
XY
Intervening variable
X–>Z–>Y
Spurious correlation
X?Y
Empirical critique
Identifying evidence that does not support a given theory–deviant cases
Theoretical critique
Showing logical limitations
The comparative method
Examine cases, look at how variables interact, focus on causal relations
Most similar system design
Similar case, different outcomes
Most different system design
Different cases, same outcome
Comparative checking
Testing conclusions from a set of comparisons against additional cases or evidence
Within case comparison
Comparing variation over time or in distinct parts of a single case
Limits of the comparative method
Relationship between variables are probability and likelihood, not laws; can’t have controlled experiments; sometimes only correlation not causation
The modern state
Central political institution with a monopoly on the legitimate use of force, expected to perform certain functions
Nation state
Represent and embody one nation
Nation
A large and geographically bound population with a common history, culture, identity, political aspirations
Characteristics of modern state
Sovereignty, bureaucracy, impersonality
Sovereignty
Ultimate authority within specifically demarcated territories
Bureaucracy
Organization with individuals operating under established, specific, and complex rules and procedures
Impersonality
States identified with institutions rather than their leaders
What do modern states typically do?
Defense, policing, taxation, manage economy, provide social welfare, provide infrastructure/other public goods
Regime
Fundamental rules and norms of politics, embodies basic principles of political life in a society
Government
Administrative apparatus of the state
O’Neil quote
If state is machinery, regime is programming, gov is operator
State capacity
States capacity to govern and perform its functions
Why do modern states emerge?
Bellicist theory: war made the state (centralized authority, tax, mobilize)
Economic theory: economic interest for ruling class
Cultural theory: Protestantism reshape attitudes toward institutions/emergence of nationalism
Diffusion theory: states w/military dominate; needs of economic interests pushed for state creation everywhere; state organization became cultural reality
Indicators measuring development
GDP, poverty rate, inequality, employment/inflation, HDI, happiness index, consumption
Potential costs of development
Loss of culture and tradition; environment/sustainability
Theories explaining development
Market v state (market is invisible hand v state intervention will push investment, coordinate, infrastructure)
Institutions: need to be strong & proper
Culture: high levels of trust/social capital; religious world views shaped incentives
Structural/systematic: world system favors rich countries; geography favors rich countries
Neoliberalism
Liberal democracy and market led development
Import substitution
State helps industries produce for domestic market by substituting these goods with previously imported
Historical institutionalism
Emphasis on the power of institutions to shape individual behavior and how this operates over time
New institutionalism
Emphasis on the power of institutions to shape individual behavior and the recent turn to this
Rational institutionalism
Emphasis on the power of institutions to shape individual behavior and implications for individuals strategic choices
Sociological institutions
How institutions create meaning
Authoritarianism
Favors closed, concentrated and hierarchies process of decision making
Personalistic dictatorship/sultan ian
Form of authoritarianism that centers on the personality of the dictator
Bureaucratic authoritarian regimes
State is controlled by a group of elites
Totalitarian regimes
Aims to control everything about the lives of its subject population
Theocracy
Controlled by religious leaders
Why do authoritarian regimes exist?
Historical institutionalism: coalitions have enduring effects
Poverty/inequality: more poverty effects because populace more concerned about economy, distrust
State weakness: weak institutions; may be predatory state or intervening variable
Political culture: cultural values more suited
Rational calculations/personal incentive
Barriers to collective action
Democracy
A form of regime associated with rule by the people with rights and liberties for citizens
Political v civil rights
Political: can participate in elections
Civil: freedom of speech, etc
Procedural democracy
Basic rules, procedures required
Substantive democracy
Emphasis on end goals
Democratization
Regime change becoming more democratic
Direct democracy
Direct citizen involvement
Representative democracy
Politicians represent the electorate
Why is there democracy?
Emergent middle class (urbanization, education, industrialization)
Modernization prevents breakdown (economic dev)
Norms and attitudes
Global powers (Cold War)
Institutions (federalism may mitigate conflict, electoral rules)
Prominent leaders as triggers (gandhi, Mandela)
Hybrid regimes
Regimes not in pure ideal forms
Electoral authoritarianism
Authoritarian regime but nominal elections are held
Competitive authoritarianism
Authoritarian regime that tolerates some political competition
Delegative democracy
democracy but electorate delegates much authority to the government
Illiberal democracy
Democracy but not all rights are protected
Why hybrid regimes?
Incomplete democratization (Russia) Authoritarian regime improves (China) Democratic breakdown (Venezuela)
Primitive communism
Egalitarian, common property
Modern communism
Create equality by eliminating private prett and market; no exploitation/repression
Marx evolution of human society
Primitive–>slavery–>feudalism–>capitalism–>communism
Why transition from capitalism–>communism?
Increased productivity, exploitative social relations; surplus
Socialism
Economic equality through state action
First communist regime
Commune of Paris
Communist regimes
Russia, China, North Korea, Vietnam, Cuba
Pink states
Socialist democratic regimes in western and Northern European countries
Why did communism rise?
Marx: advance productivity-->class struggle-->working class Lenin: role of vanguard party (communist party) Mao: importance of strategy in revolutions; nationalism Intl: comminterm/ussr; WW2
Why did communism decline?
Adaptation of capitalism
Decay of communist regime (became totalitarian for privileged class, failure of planned economies)
Role of leadership (Gorbachev)
Intl: failed competition with lib democracies
Constitutions
Fundamental and supreme laws; est the basis of a political system and basis for other laws
Constitutionalism
Limitations of gov through a constitution
Constitutional design
Features of constitutions that form the basis of the political system
Types of constitutions
Authoritarian v democratic; flexible v rigid; federalism v unitary
Judicial review
Power of constitutional courts to determine the legality of laws
Is judicial review anti democratic?
Judges can defend basic rights (brown v board)
But judges not democratically elected
Federalism
Separation of powers among levels of gov
Unitarism
Unitary central gov
Why federalism?
Riker: bargain among regional actors (us)
Stepan: hold different groups together (Canada)
Federalism & social stability
Can support: give different groups some stake, serve as a safety valve
Can compromise: empower separatists
Federalism and democratic rights
Can allow different regions to have different laws
But different areas may end up with more/less rights
Federalism and economy
Can promote healthy competition
But can hurt economic stability (race to the bottom, overspending)
Legislature
Assembly with authority to make laws
Functions of legislatures
Representation, vote/debate legislation, control spending, oversee executive, socialize politicians
Types of legislatures
Unicameral- 1 chamber; bicameral- 2 chambers
District system
Voters select representatives from specific geographic constituencies
SMD
1 rep wins
FPP
Most votes wins
Runoff
Top candidates continue until majority
PR
Voters choose preferred party and parties win seats from % of vote
Closed list PR
Party leaders determine elected
Open list PR
Citizens vote for candidates too
Mixed/Hybrid systems
Combine district and PR
Alternative vote
Reallocate votes of low ranking candidates
Single transferable vote
Reallocate surplus votes
What shapes representation?
Mandate v independence
District system v PR
Legislative decision making (major rules to committee, party discipline)
Executive-leg relations (formal and partisan powers)
District system vs PR
District: voters on losing side not represented, gerrymandering, malapportionment
PR: no geographic rep
Executive
Branch of gov that executes/administers policies/laws
Bureaucracy
Organization of unelected officials that implements, executed, and enforced laws/policies
Head of state
Symbolic executive
Head of gov
Forms gov, formulated and implements policies
Prime minister
Chief exec in parliamentary system
President
Head of state and head of gov; not directly responsible to leg
Monarch
Head of state in a monarchy
Formal executive powers
Function of constitution or legal position (veto, dissolve leg, decree/exec order, state of emergency)
Exec partisan power
Virtue of officials leverage over members of political party (nominations)
Exec Informal power
Based on customs, conventions, etc (patronage)
Minimum winning coalition
No extra parties
Minimum connected winning
Minimum winning and connected on policy spectrum
Minimum size
Close to min seats as possible
Minimum number of parties
Fewest number of parties to form a majority
Median party
Includes the median party
Min range
Min spaces on policy spectrum
Presidentialism v. Parliamentarism
Parliamentarism better for democracy because: clear legitimacy, flexible terms of officer, power-sharing, prime minister style, insider executives
Empirical critique for parliamentarism>presidentalism
Parliamentary countries are generally wealthier, European
Theoretical critique for parliamentarism>presidentalism
Parliamentary depends on other institution, can be winner take all
Styles of presidentialism
Populism, delegative democracy
Patterns of parliamentary rule
Unstable, consociational
Political parties
Political organizations that seek to influence policy by getting candidates elected
Party systems
Patterns of party politics characterized by number of relevant parties
Interest groups
Organizations that make demands in the political system on behalf of constituents and members
Types of political parties:
Elite: membership and scope restricted to political elites
Mass: large number of citizens; massive mobilization
Catch all: flexible on ideology positions for broad support
Dominant party system
One large party dominates
Single party system
Other parties banned/disallowed
Two party system
Two parties have duopoly
Multiparty system
More than two major parties; fragmented if many small parties or concentrated if few large parties
Pluralism
Interest groups compete openly
Corporatism
Certain groups designated to represent interests
What shapes party system?
Electoral rules (duverger’s law)
Geography, history, economy
Ideology (ie, communism)
Outcome of two party system
Centrism because medium voter theorem and strategic voting
Interest groups and representation
Pluralism: advantages: marketplace of ideas, equal opportunity; disadvantages: collective action problems, important groups excluded
Corporatism: advantages: ensures representation, consensus/strategy building
Disadvantages: cronyism/elitism, impede reform (depend if state is controlling system)
Civil society
Organizations outside the state where citizens advance their interests, building social capital
Social capital
Features of social organizations like networks, norms, social trust; facilitate coordination and cooperation
Civil society in pluralist v corporatist
Pluralist: less state involvement, nonhierarchical characteristics, multiple groups competing;
Corporatism: more state involvement, hierarchical characteristics, fewer groups with limited competition
Civil society and democratic transition
Conditions for civil society are conducive to democratization; civil liberties/accountability/competition; organization and mobilization for transition
Civil society and democratic consolidation
Weak civil society will hinder
Civil society and qualities of democracy
Stimulates participation, alternate channels to representation, dev democratic attitudes, promotes socioeconomic development
Contention
Pursuit of collective goods largely outside of formal political institutions
Revolutions
Efforts to dramatically transform society and its political/social structures
Social revolutions
Changes social and political structures (french, Russian, chinese)
Political revolutions
Primarily alter political institutions
Social movements
Ongoing, organizers and sustained collective action oriented toward goal of social change
Social networks
Structures of social ties and connections among individuals
Social movement organization
Organizations created to help maintain and lead social movement activity over time
Iron law of oligarchy
Organizational leadership necessarily creates its own interests
Insurgencies
Contention with formalized military conflict
Civil war
Sustained military conflict between domestic actors
Terrorism
Violence toward non military targets
Everyday resistance
Efforts to resist or obstruction authority that are not clearly organized over time
Rightful resistance
Making rightful claims in authoritarian regimes
Theories explaining contention
Relative deprivation and social disequilibrium: major changes leads to social strains, increases demands for revolution
Resource mobilization and political opportunities: state breakdown creates opportunity, organizational resources matter
Rational choice theory: rationality depends on upping individual benefits and lowering risk
Cultural explanation: ability to frame in meaningful way shapes success
Identity
Social label that locates an individual or group in society
National identity
An identity that locates ones social position in relation to national membership
Nationalism
view that the world is and should be divided into sovereign and egalitarian nations
Primordialism
National identity continuous with prehistorical forms of identity
Perrenialism
National identity is neither exclusively modern nor prehistoric
Modernism
Nationalism emerged in 17th and 18fh c europe
Civic nationalism
Western; depends on state citizenship
Ethnic nationalism
Eastern; based on ancestry
Individualistic nationalism
Nations are associations of individuals, always civic not ethnic
Collectivistic nationalism
Nations have collective agency, can be civic or ethnic
Race
Idea that human beings are divided into different groups; biological categories based on skin color
Ethnicity
Quality that one has by identifying with or being member of an ethnic group
Ethnic group
Group that identifies itself as having strong cultural commonality and history
Gender
Culturally constructed roles one has by being male or female
Emergence of nationalism
Primordial bonds: evolution encourages collective identities
Structural forces: structures (ie, capitalism)–> nationalism
Political institutions: states create nations
Cultural construction: elites facing status inconsistency use nations
Structuralism
See social structures as explanatory variables
Functionalism
Explaining something by its consequences
Explaining ethno-national conflicts
Primordial bounds: if group identity is under threat
(Critique: why is conflict not constant then?)
Cultural boundaries: types of boundaries
Material interests: identity used for resources
Rational calc: rational choice of actors
Instrumentalism
Explains outcomes by showing how it’s in elite interest
Theories of women/minority rep
Social movement mobilization: social movements bring social change and change public attitudes
Political parties based on ethnicity (demographics, social factors, electoral system, history)
Institutional (reserve seat, candidate quota)
Political culture
Set of beliefs that people hold about politics
Modernity
Society with economic dev, strong modern state and set of sociocultural norms
Modernization
Process through which a state becomes more modern
Ideology
Highly organized system of ideas about politics
Liberalism
Emphasize individual freedom, representative democracy, and market economy
Social democracy
Liberalism with state action
Liberatariansm
Liberalism with minimal government
Racism
Authoritarian ideology favoring militarism and right wing nationalism
Socialism
Economic equality pursued by state action
What religion does:
Foster social integration, sense of order, motivate collective action, feature transcendent force
Secularization
Process through which societies become less religious, often as they modernize
Religious states
Religion is a key part of politics (Saudi Arabia)
Lay states
Est a formal separation of religion and public (France)
Denominationalism
System that supports religious pluralism and voluntary participation
Modernization and religions theories
Modernization theory: less existential insecurity (critique: US)
Religious economics: demand for religion constant, depends on market
Institutional theories: more complex society has more varied institutions
Public policy making
Pivotal stage of political process that converts social interests and demands into public policies
Decision rules in policy making
Rules that determine what political resources are valuable in influencing decisions and how to use these resources, constitutions est fundamental rules
Actors in policy making
Branches of government, IG, public, civil society, state agencies
Veto players
Can block adoption of a policy
Policy stability will increase with:
Number of veto players (bicam v unicam, power of pres, coalition v 1 party), lack of congruence of veto players (party positions, two party v multi, composition of chamber), internal cohesion of veto player (size, electoral system)
Political participation
Activity with intent of influencing political process; conventional: voting, running for office, joining groups; unconventional: boycott, sit in
What affects voter turnout?
Institutions (compulsory voting, electoral system-PR increases, unicameral will increase, Voting age, voting rules)
Socioeconomic: developed country, smaller
Party system: more parties–> less inclined
Closeness of election
Political participation in China
Mao: compulsory via mass mobilization (cultural rev)
Reform: optional with est channels (letters, elections, or not est. Protests and resistance
Welfare states
Provide safety net for vulnerable with social insurance, health care, poverty relief
1st social welfare state
Bismarck
3 types of welfare state
Liberal, corporatist, social democratic
Liberal welfare state
Private welfare, means tested benefits, low wealth redistribution, high inequality, labor commodification; US
Corporatist/continental welfare state
State aids to preserve status hierarchy; medium inequality, medium decommodification of labor; Germany
Social democratic welfare state
Extensive, low inequalities, high security, high labor decommodification; Sweden
Explaining emergence of welfare states
Cultural: people turn to state instead of religion/family; notion of citizenship expanded
Industrial capitalism: reaction to economic changes, save capitalism, impose socialism, guard social relations
Mobilization and political action: specific actors
Poverty reduction in China
Development and relief; building infrastructure, loans, jobs, allowances
Education in China
Pre-reform: state sponsored
Reform: 9 year compulsory, marketization
Recent: abolition of rural tuition
Employment in China
Pre-reform: guaranteed
Reform: labor market but unemployment insurance
Pension in China
Pre-reform: working units/collectives
Reform: state takeover of urban units
2000: small rural pension
Health care in China
Pre-reform: cheap but effective, bare feet doctors in rural
Reform: marketization
Housing in China
Pre-reform: working units/collectives
Reform: marketization
Characteristics of social welfare in China
Huge rural-urban divide
Increases coverage but low level provisions
State replacing SOE and rural collectives in reform era
Shift to market oriented welfare provision
Emphasize human development
International relations
The study of relations between countries and between actors in the international system
Foreign policy
Set of policies toward foreign nations made by a national government
International security
Study of issues of war and peace between nations and global security and conflict
International political economy
Study of how the economic relations between countries affect politics and how political relations affect economies
Globalization
Process of increasing economic and/or cultural interactions across national borders
Regional integration
Process by which countries in a region agree to collaborate economically or politically to make decisions collectively and to shape common strategies
International trade
The economic exchange of goods, services, and capital across international borders
Benefits of free trade
Comparative advantage, efficiency
Benefit of protectionism
Give favor to domestic producers
Immigration
Movement of people to foreign countries
Assimilation
Being integrated into another culture
Nativism
Political attitude that seeks to protect the interests of established groups against the interests of more recent immigrants
Economic consequences of immigration
Brain drain in underdeveloped countries
Remittances sent home
Intergovernmental organizations
International organizations that push for cooperation between countries and prevention/mitigation of conflict
Transnational non governmental networks
Networks of different actors working across borders; terrorist groups, environmental protection groups, multinational corporations
Nuclear proliferation
The expansion of the number of countries with nuclear technology
Realism (intl relations)
Theory that the international system acts on the basis of self interest as if individuals making rational calculations; states will find common cause to counter balance other powers; game theory
Game theory
Set of approaches to study strategic interaction and relies on mathematical modeling and assumptions of rationality
Liberalism (intl relations)
Theory: internal structures make different preferences and behaviors; cooperation can occur more than realism because: economic interests, liberal institutions (democratic peace)
Constructivism (intl relations)
Theory: decisions made by states need to be understood in context of social and political institutions; behavior is shaped by norms/values, countries with basis for trust will cooperate
Marxism (intl relations)
Social classes play predominant role
EU
Supranational governance, constitutional nature
East Asia historically
shares traditions and similar values but also conflicts and confrontations
East Asia current dynamics
Driven by economic cooperation and integration; influenced by power politics within and beyond (Sino/Japan competition, US)
Regional crisis: catalyst for cooperation
ASEAN free trade agreement
Singapore, Phillipenes, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Cambodia; eliminate tariffs/non tariff barriers and attract investment
ASEAN economic community
Similar to EU; single market/production base, economically competitive, equitable economic development, fully integrate with global economy
ASEAN & others
Signed 3 separate FTA with China, Korea, Japan
China wants EAFTA (ASEAN + 3)
Japan wants to add India, australia, New Zealand
