Final Flashcards
Garbage In, Garbage Out
G.I.G.O.
The process of gathering and analyzing data in a systematic and controlled way using procedures that are generally accepted by others in the discipline.
Science
Procedures used to gather and analyze scientific data.
Methods
Repetition of a particular study that is conducted for purposes of determining whether the original study’s results hold when new samples or measures are employed.
Replication
A set of proposed and testable explanations about reality that are bound together by logic and evidence.
Theory
A single proposition deduced from a theory, that must hold true in order for the theory itself to be considered valid.
Hypothesis
Subset pulled from a population with the goal of ultimately using the people, objects, or places in the sample as a way to generalize to the population.
Sample
The universe of people, objects, or locations that researchers wish to study. Usually large.
Populations
Sampling technique in which all people, objects, or areas in a population have an equal and known chance of being selected into the sample.
Probability Sampling
Studies intended to assess the results of programs or interventions for purposes of discovering whether those programs or interventions appear to be effective.
Evaluation Research
Studies that address issues that have not been examined much or at all in prior research and that therefore may lack firm theoretical and empirical grounding.
Exploratory Research
Studies done solely for the purpose of describing a particular phenomenon as it occurs in a sample.
Descriptive Research
A characteristic that describes people, objects, or places and takes multiple values in a sample or population
Variable
The object or target of a research study.
Unit of Analysis
The phenomenon that a researcher wishes to study, explain, or predict.
Dependent Variable
A factor or characteristic that is used to try to explain or predict a dependent variable.
Independent Variable
Having the qualities of being measurable, observable, or tangible. Empirical phenomena are deductible with senses such as sight, hearing, or touch.
Empirical
The error of assuming that a statistical relationship that is present in a group applies uniformly to all individual people or objects within that group.
Ecological Fallacy
A variable’s specific type or classification. There are four types nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.
Level of Measurement
A classification that places people or objects into different groups according to a particular characteristic that cannot be ranked in terms of quantity.
Nominal Variable
A classification that places people or objects into different groups according to a particular characteristic that can be ranked in terms of quantity.
Ordinal Variable
A quantitative variable that numerically measures the extent to which a particular characteristics is present or absent and does not have a true zero point.
Interval Variable
A quantitative variable that numerically measures the extent to which a particular characteristics is present or absent and has a true zero point.
Ratio Variable
Involving one variable
Univariable
A raw count of the number of times a particular characteristic appears in a data set.
Frequency
A standardized for of a frequency that ranges from 0.00 to 1.00
Proportion
A standardized for of a frequency that ranges from 0.00 to 0.00 to 100.00
Percentages
Three or more topics/variables
Multivariate
A table showing the overlap between two variables.
Contingency Table
Analysis involving two variables. Usually one is designated the independent variable and the other the dependent variable.
Bivariate
Variables measured repeatedly over time.
Longitudinal Variable
Patterns that indicate whether something is increasing, decreasing, or staying the same over time.
Trends
x = raw dataf = frequencyfx = total of all values
Grouped data.
The most frequent occurring category or value in a set if scores.
Mode
The distance between the mean of a data set and any given raw score in that set.
Deviation score
The amount of spread or variability among the scores in a distribution.
Dispersion
The simplest of three measures of central tendency.
Mode
A measure of dispersion for variables of any level of measurement that is calculated as the proportion of cases located outside the modal category.
Variation ratio
The score that cuts a distribution exactly in half such that 50% of the scores are above that value and 50% are below
Median
p=f/N
Variation ratio formula
Descriptive statistics that offer information about where the scores in a particular data set tend to cluster.
Measures of central tendency
Can only be used with continuous data.Is always positive
Variance
Computed as the square root of the variance, a measure of dispersion that is the mean of the deviation scores.
Standard deviation
Logical premises that form a set of predictions about the likelihood of certain events or the empirical results that one would expect to see in an infinite set of trails.
Probability theory
A standardized version of a raw score that offers two pieces of information about the raw score.1-how close it is to the distribution mean and2-whether it is greater than or less than the mean.
Z score
Also called the 50th percentile
Median
A trial with exactly two possible outcomes. Also called a dichotomous or binary variable.
Binomial
A distribution of raw scores from a sample or population that is symmetric, unimodal, and has an area of 1.00. -differ from one another in metrics, means, and standard deviations
Normal curve
The arithmetic average of a set of data
Mean
A measure of dispersion for continuous variables that is calculated by subtracting the smallest score from the largest.-simplest measure of dispersion
range
A numerical result from a sample, such as a mean or frequency. Also called observed outcomes.
Empirical outcome
The field of statistics in which a descriptive statistic derived from a sample is employed probabilistically to make a generalization or inference about the population from which the sample was drawn.
Inferential statistics
The likelihood that a certain event will occur.
Probability
A prediction, grounded in logic, about whether or not a certain event will occur.
Theoretical prediction
An act that has several different possible outcomes.
Trial
An empirical distribution made of raw scores from a population
Population distribution
An empirical distribution made of raw scores from a sample
Sample distribution
A theoretical distribution made out of an infinite number of sample statistics
Sampling distribution
The uncertainty introduced into a sample statistic by the fact that any given sample is only one of an infinite number of samples that could have been drawn from that population
Sampling error
The property of sampling distribution that guarantees that this curve will be normally distributed when infinite samples of large size have been drawn
Central limit theorem
The standard deviation of the sampling distribution
Standard error
A sample statistic, such as mean or proportion
Point estimate
A range of values spanning a point estimate that is calculated so as to have certain probability of containing the population parameter
Confidence interval
The probability that a confidence interval contains the population parameter. Commonly at 95% or 99%
Level of confidence
The opposite of the confidence level; that is the probability that a confidence interval does not contain the true population parameter.
Alpha level
A statistical test in which alpha is split in half and placed into both tails of the z or t distribution.
Two-tailed test
The process of generalizing from a sample to a population; the use of a sample statistic to estimate a population parameter. Also called hypothesis testing.
Inferential analysis
In an inferential test, the hypothesis predicting that there is no relationship between the independent and dependent variables. H0
Null hypothesis
In an inferential test, the hypothesis predicting that there is a relationship between the independent and dependent variables. H1
Alternative hypothesis
The erroneous rejection of a true null hypothesis
Type I error
The erroneous retention of a false null hypothesis
Type II error
Alpha level is the same as
Confidence level
The hypothesis testing procedure appropriate when the independent and dependent variables are both categorical, bivariate
Chi-square test of independence
The sampling probability distribution for chi-square tests.
X2 distribution
Row and column totals in a bivariate contingency table
Marginals
The condition in which two variables aren’t related to one another; that is, knowing what classpersons or objects fall into on the IV does not help predict which class they will fall into on the DvV
Statistical independence
The condition in which two variables are related to one another; that is, knowing what classpersons or objects fall into on the IV helps predict which class they will fall into on the DV
Statistical dependence
In SPSS output, the probability associated with the obtained value of the test statistic. When p < a the null hypothesis is rejected
p value
Large sample
100 or more
% of normal curve between -2/+2
95%
UCR
Uniform Crime Report
NCVS
National Crime Victimization survey
Limitation of UCR
Dark figure of crime
Categorical units
Nominal, Ordinal
Continuous units
Interval, Ratio
Regression
y=a+b(x) (future=past(present))
- 2 variables only
- Interval or ratio data only
- Uses r
- r tells strength or direction
Correlation
Gender, handedness, favorite color, and religion are examples
Nominal
“very dissatisfied,” “somewhat dissatisfied,” “somewhat satisfied,” or “very satisfied.”
Ordinal
The difference between 30 degrees and 40 degrees represents the same temperature difference as the difference between 80 degrees and 90 degrees.
Interval
the amount of money you have in your pocket right now
Ratio
