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Final Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are the 2 amniote lineages

A

synapsids and sauropsids

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2
Q

when did the dominance shift from amphibians to amniotes

A

permian

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3
Q

what is the largest mass extinction

A

end permian extinction

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4
Q

what does the end permian extinction mark the boundary of

A

palaeozoic-mesozoic boundary

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5
Q

what is the issue between running and breathing un early amniotes

and the solution

A

used same muscles to run and breathe, making it hard to run and breathe at same time

solution: legs shift below body and lumbar ribs are lost, develop diaphragmatic breathing

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6
Q

how does diaphragmatic breathing work (+ and - pressure)

A
  • inhalation: expansion of rib cage (negative pressure pulls air in
  • exhalation: contraction of ribs ( + pressure)
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7
Q

what are the evolutionary trends in skeletons

A
  • shift to upright posture
  • shorter toes
  • shift in phalangeal formula
  • loss of lateral flexion
  • loss of lumbar ribs (gain of diaphragm)
  • gain of dorsal ventral flexion
  • increase in sacral vertebrae
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8
Q

what is the atlas

A

first vertebra

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9
Q

what is the axis

A

second vertebrae

modified to form rotational joint with the atlas

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10
Q

what is the occipital condyle

A

hinge joint that allows for vertical motion

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11
Q

what are the evolutionary trends in the skull

A
  • shifts from a single to a double occipital condyle
  • appearance of temporal fenestra
  • reorganization and increase in jaw muscles (dentary bone increases)
  • middle ear bones
  • mammals develop a complete bony palate
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12
Q

how did middle ear bones develop

A

loss of AQ joint frees articular and quadrate bones to become the middle ear bones

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13
Q

what happens when the dentary bone develops

A

a joint is added between the articular and squamosal jones

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14
Q

what was the function of a complete bony palate

A

protects braincase during feeding

allows for simultaneous chewing + breathing

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15
Q

what 3 evolutionary trends did mammals have (and what is this evidence of)

A
  • sustained running
  • more efficient eating+ more food intake
  • hearing

provides evidence of higher metabolic rate

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16
Q

what did early fossil records of mammals suggest they were like

A

-small
- nocturnal
- insectivorous

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17
Q

how are mammalian sensory systems from other tetrapods

A
  • eyes have higher ratio of rods to cones (good vision in low light, and poor colour vision)
  • enhanced olfactory sensitivity
  • hearing with a broader frequency range
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18
Q

how do primates differ from other mammals (in terms of senses)

A

good vision and weak olfaction

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19
Q

what are the 3 types of glands in mammal skin

A

sebaceous - oil glands

eccrine glands - sweat

apocrine glands - secrete pheromones

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20
Q

what do arrector pills muscles do

A

controls position of hair

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21
Q

what are the 2 hypotheses of the origins of mammal hair

A
  • insulation hypothesis: evolved to keep them warm (suggests they were already endothermic)
  • sensory hypothesis: hair may have evolved as a sensory tactile structure (later contributed to insulation)
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22
Q

what did mammary glands evolve from

A

apocrine glands

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23
Q

what does suckling require

A
  • lip muscles
  • ability to breathe and feed at same time
  • absence of teeth
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24
Q

what do mammal’s facial muscles allow them to do

A

manipulate food

suckle

express emotions

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25
Q

what 2 factors caused diphyodont dentition to evolve in mammals

A
  • delayed eruption of first teeth in response to suckling
  • skulls with determinate growth (skulls stop growing and dont need to continually add teeth)
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26
Q

True or false: diphyodint dentition allows for more efficient chewing with cheek teeth and more specialization

A

true

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27
Q

what does sinoatrial node arise from

A

sinus venousus in incorporated into right atrium

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28
Q

what is the function of the sinoatrial node

A

pace maker - generates the action potentials that initiate contraction of the heart

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29
Q

what side of mammal heart delivers oxygenated blood to body

A

left

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30
Q

what side of mammal heart delivers deoxygenated blood to lungs

A

right

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31
Q

what kind of lungs do mammals have and what is the benefit of them

A

alveolar lungs

have more SA for gas exchange

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32
Q

what are alveoli

A

tiny sacs located at end of bronchioles

surrounded by capillary beds

site of gas exchange

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33
Q

why did lactation evolve

A

originally it functioned to keep eggs moist and to transfer antimicrobial chemicals for protection

over time selected for glandular secretions and inclusion of nutrients

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34
Q

what is a marsupium

A

pouch in which young develop

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35
Q

what does oviparous mean

A

egg laying

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36
Q

what does viviparous mean

A

give birth to altricial young at very early stage of development

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37
Q

what does precocial mean

A

still fed from mom, but more independent

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38
Q

what is the defining feature of eutherian mammals

A

formation of a chorioallontoic placenta

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39
Q

is the following a constraint/benefit of marsupial or eutherian reproduction:

pregnancy is low cost + low risk and can be easily terminated if mother is stressed (ex: food shortage)

A

marsupial

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40
Q

is the following a constraint/benefit of marsupial or eutherian reproduction

possibility of marine/flying lineages

A

eutherian

since marsupial baby has to have well developed hands for climbing/grasping

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41
Q

is the following a constraint/benefit of marsupial or eutherian reproduction

female can support multiple babies at different stages

A

marsupial

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42
Q

is the following a constraint/benefit of marsupial or eutherian reproduction

fewer constraints on development of forelimbs and jaws

A

eutherian

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43
Q

when did mammals start diversifying

A

mesozoic

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44
Q

what did end-creatcous extinction mark the end of

A

end of cretaceous period and mesozoic era

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45
Q

what were the short term effects of end-cretaceous meteorite

A
  • volcanoes + earthquakes
  • dust + ash in atmosphere (darkness and cooling)
  • massive tsunamis
  • acid rain
  • hige fires
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46
Q

what were the mid term effects of end-cretaceous meteorite

A
  • nuclear winter
  • freezing temperatures
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47
Q

what were the long term effects of end-cretaceous meteorite

A

ecological collapse

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48
Q

when was the age of mammals

A

cenozoic era

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49
Q

what is an ecomorph

A

body type adapted for an ecological lifestyle

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50
Q

what is cursorial for and what is the body like

A

for running

long limbs with fewer joints on ground

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51
Q

what is fossorial for and what is body like

A

digging

short muscular forelimbs with strong claws

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52
Q

what is scansorial for and what is body like

A

for climbing

grasping hands/feet/tails

53
Q

what are semiaquatic animal bodies like

A

streamlines body and webbed feet q\

54
Q

what are volant animal bodies like

A

gliding

so skin between limbs

55
Q

what are the 2 categories of herbivores

A

foregut fermenters: modified stomachs

handgun fermenters: modified large intestines/cecum

56
Q

what does dinural mean

A

active during day

57
Q

what does crepuscular mean

A

active at dawn or dusk

58
Q

what does cathemeral mean

A

active day or night

59
Q

what are the 2 types of testudines

A

cryptodira: hidden neck (retracting neck)

pleurodira: side neck (side bending neck)

60
Q

what are the 2 parts of a turtle shell

A

carapace: upper

plastron: lower

61
Q

what are turtle shells made out of

A

layer of bone covered by a layer of scutes (keratin)

62
Q

what is special about turtle vertebrae

A

fewer vertebrae than ancestral amniote

elongated thoracic vertebrae that are fused with carapace

increased flexibility and rotation in the cervical vertebrae

63
Q

how do turtles breath

A

inhalation: muscular contraction pulls guts down, pulling lung down

exhalation: muscular contraction compresses organs against the lungs

64
Q

what non-pulmonary breathing methods can some turtles use

A

buccopharynx

skin

cloacal bursae

65
Q

why do turtles also use non-pulmonary breathing

A

allows them to stay underwater longer and helps with hibernation

66
Q

what is advantage of turtle heart

A

can simultaneously pumo blood to 2 different systems (pulmonary and systemic)

67
Q

what is blood shunting

A

restrict blood flow to the lungs by constricting the pulmonary trunk

this redirects blood to the aortic arches (systemic system)

68
Q

why do reptiles do blood shunting

A
  • if rate of breathing is low
  • when swimming/hibernating
  • when head is retracted into shell (turtles)
    to direct more blood to digestive system
69
Q

did carapace or plastron evolve first

A

plastron

70
Q

did ribs get wider/flatter before/after shell evolved in turtles

A

before

71
Q

what are the two hypotheses for how turtle shell evolved

A
  • protection
  • fossorial lifestyle
72
Q

what is evidence that turtle shell evolved for protection

A

plastron evolved first, protection from attacks from blow in aquatic environments

73
Q

what is an issue with protection hypothesis

A

intermediate shell (broad ribs) wouldn’t provide much protection, also make it hard to breathe and reduce stride length

74
Q

what is evidence for fossorial hypothesis for turtle shells

A

broad ribs would provide lots of muscle attachments for strong digging arms

75
Q

what are the hypotheses for turtle neck folding evolution

A
  • protection: though half folded neck doesn’t provide much protection
  • feeding: slow moving bodies and fast moving neck. Thrust head forward to suck in prey (only works in water)
76
Q

what are the shared characteristics of lepidosaurs

A
  • keratinous scales
  • 3 chambered heart
  • caudal autotomy
  • paired hemipenis
77
Q

what is cranial kinesis

A

additional joints in the skull result in a more flexible skull

allows for a larger gape (jaw opening) though with a less powerful bite force

78
Q

what are the defining characteristics of snakes

A
  • absence of eyelids
  • reduced colour vision
    -highly modified skull
  • lack of external ear
79
Q

what is snake skull like

A

have cranial kinesis

lost second temporal bar

left and right joints of skull can move independently

left and right halves of lower jaw can separate

reduces bite strength but allows for more complex movements of skull

80
Q

can snakes unhinge their jaws

A

no

they use extra joints

81
Q

what are the hypotheses for evolution of snakes

A
  • swimming hypothesis: snakes share skull characteristics with mosasaurs
  • burrowing hypothesis: many unique snake characteristics (ex: loss of eyelids) are consistent with fossorial lifestyle
82
Q

how do crocodilians use organs to help with movement

A

move lungs and liver to shift centre of gravity

83
Q

why do crocodilians have yes and nostrils on their dorsal surface

A

so they can conceal themselves in water

84
Q

what allow crocodiles to feed underwater

A

valve at back of throat to prevent water from entering trachea

85
Q

what are gastroliths and what is the function

A

stones that crocodilian consume that end up in stomach

mechnnical breakdown of food and increased weight for diving

86
Q

is there a difference between oxygen in blood in two halves of heart during apnea

A

no

87
Q

how do crocodilians breathe

A

moving their livers like a piston

88
Q

what kind of respiration do crocodilians use

A

unidirectional and controlled by valves

more efficient than tidal air flow

89
Q

what was first vertebrate capable of flight

A

pterosaurs

90
Q

why are dinosaurs so big (factors that allowed them to)

A
  • indeterminate growth
  • efficient respiration (unidirectional air flow)
  • lighter skeletons
  • efficient reproduction
  • for sauropods - long neck gave access to more food
91
Q

why are dinosaurs so big (factors that caused them)

A
  • more vegetation
  • predator-prey relationship selected for bigger
92
Q

what are skeletal modifications that birds have for flight

A
  • loss/reduction of bones
  • fusion of bones in the trunk (increase strength)
  • some bones are pnematisized (with internal struts for strength)
93
Q

what powers downstroke of wing

A

pectorals major contracting, which is attached to keel and humerus

94
Q

wat powrs upstroke of flight

A

superacoracoideus muscle contracting

which is attached to sternum and humerus (by tendon)

95
Q

is up or down stroke more powerful

A

downstroke

96
Q

what does the furcula (wishbone) do

A

helps stabilize scapula

functions as spring (stores energy generated by downstroke and releases it during upstroke)

97
Q

what are feathers homologous with

A

reptilian scales and synapsid hair

98
Q

what do feathers form from and made from

A

from follicles in skin and are composed primarily of beta keratin

99
Q

are bird lungs static or moving

A

static

volume is conrsant

100
Q

how does air move through bird lung

A

air sacs expand and contract to move air through lungs

101
Q

how do birds gain respiratory efficiency

A

by separating respirator surface (lungs) from ventilatory mechanism (air sac)

102
Q

what is the syrinx `

A

organ used by birds to vocalize

103
Q

what was the path of the evolution of feathers (3 terms

A

protofeather -> plummaceus feather -> pennaceous feather

104
Q

what are the 3 hypotheses for the origin of feathers

A
  • thermoregulation
  • sexual selection
  • tactile (played sensory role like whiskers)
105
Q

what are bird-like characteristics that archaeopteryx

A
  • feathers
  • beak
  • 3 digits on forelimbs
  • wishbone
  • flexible wrist joint
106
Q

what are reptile-like characteristics that archaeopteryx had

A
  • teeth
  • forelimb digits had claws
  • long vestigial tail
  • flat sternum
107
Q

what species is the transitional fossil between birds and dinosaurs

A

archaeopteryx

108
Q

what Is difference between gliding and flying

A

gliding is controlled falling

flying involves powered flight

109
Q

how many times has flying evolved in vertebrates

A

3

110
Q

what are the 3 times that flying evolved

A

birds
pterosaurs
bats

111
Q

what is the evidence that archaeopteryx could fly

A
  • presence of wishbone
  • long asymmetrical flight feathers
  • feathers tails/legs may have provided additional flying surface
  • wing bones were capable of withstanding the stresses of flight
112
Q

evidence against archaeopteryx flight

A
  • small flat sternum without ossified keel
  • lacked trios seal foramen (no powerful upstroke)
  • shoulder joint may not have been able to lift above head
  • short rounded wings
113
Q

what are the hypotheses for the evolution of flight in birds

A
  • arboreal hypothesis (tree down): early birds lined in trees and would use wings to glide down from them
  • cursorial hypothesis (ground up): early birds were fast bipedal runners that used wings for lift
  • wing assisted incline running (modified ground up): used wings for lift as they ran up steep inclines e
114
Q

what are the benefits of endothermy

A
  • can live in cooler environments
  • can be active at night
  • always alert and capable of activity
  • embryos can develop faster
115
Q

what are the correlates of endothermy

A
  • retaining heat (insulation)
  • high metabolic rate
  • large brains
  • more upright posture
116
Q

how can mammals/birds use fur/feathers to adjust insulation

A

raise or lower them (changes amount of trapped air)

117
Q

what are nasal turbinates and what is function

A

thin sheets of bone/cartilage lined with epitheliium

warm/humidify air

reclaim moisture and heat from exhaled air

118
Q

do all amniotes have a multichambered lung

A

yes

119
Q

do birds/mammals have more or less complex/effiecient lungs than other amniotes

A

more

120
Q

why don’t mammal RBCs have nuclei, what is benefit

A

RBCs are small and also have have more capillaries = more SA for gas exchange = greater oxygen transport capacity

so small they dont have nuclei

121
Q

what other group (apart from mammals) have really small RBCs

A

birds

122
Q

what is the problem that more capillaries creates and what is the solution

A

problem: as number of capillaries increases, more BP is needed to maintain blood flow

BUT high BP causes fluid to leak out of alveoli

solution: provide high BP to body and low BP to lungs by separating these 2 circuits

123
Q

what kind of circulatory system do both mammals and birds have

A

fully divided 4 chamber heart with complete separate pulmonary and systemic circuits

124
Q

what are the advantages of having fully divided heart with 2 different circuits

A
  • prevents mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
  • can maintain different BP in different circuits
125
Q

why transition from land to sea

A
  • end-permian extinctions included extinctions of many marine predators
  • separation of continents in Mesozoic created lots of coast and shallow seas
  • marine nutrients increased at start of the Mesozoic. This led to productive habitats that supported more diversity and higher trophic levels
126
Q

what were the 2 body plans of sauropterygians

A
  • short neck - fast swimming
  • long neck - slower movement
127
Q

what are the 2 groups of cetaceans

A
  • toothed cetaceans (ex: orcas)
  • baleen whales
128
Q
A

Vertebrate bio (5 decks)

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