Final 15-17 Flashcards
What are the functions of the endocrine system?
to communicate between cells
maintain homeostasis
integrate cellular activity using hormones
How does the endocrine system function?
It functions with cooperation between neural impulses and hormone to stimulate the production of chemical messengers that make target cells do work in order to maintain homeostasis.
what are the main parts of the endocrine system?
hypothalamus glands and other organs.
What are the similarities of the endocrine system in comparison to neural activity?
- use chemicals at some point to exchange information.
- communicate between cells
- maintain homeostasis
What are the differences of the endocrine system and neural activity?
- nervous system uses neurotransmitters and endocrine uses hormones.
- nervous system activity is temporary while endocrine is longer lasting.
- nervous system is takes milliseconds to react whereas endocrine takes minutes to hours to act
- information travels down the axon and in between neurons but endocrine uses the blood system to transport it’s chemical information.
- in neuronal system Target cells are neurons target cells in the endocrine can be anywhere and everywhere are where ever just depending on the hormone released.
what are hormones generally
they are chemicals produced by neurons glands and organs that help maintain homeostasis.
how hormones reach their target cells
bloodstream
what are the function of hormones in general
they are used to regulate
- circadian rhythms
- chemical composition and volume of water
- metabolism
- contraction of smooth muscle
- immune function
- growth and development
- reproduction
what are the three reasons for hormone release?
humoral
neural
hormonal stimulation
what is humoral stimulation?
changes of composition of blood or fluids of the body
neural stimulation?
sympathetic stimulation of adrenal medulla
Hormonal stimulation
anterior pituitary glands stimulating other endocrine glands to work.
what is a feedback system in the body?
a feedback system is one that shuts off an action once the system that the job has completed, whether that is that the body was once hot and now it is cool or blood levels are now at a good level.
are negative feedback systems or positive feedback systems more common?
negative feedback because they do things to combat a stimulus.
do all hormons work on all cells?
no the cell needs to havethe same type of receptor that the hormone carries inorder for the hormone to stimulate the cell to do anything.
Which organ can be described as the master controller of the endocrine system?
hypothalamus
what are the three ways that the hypothalamus structure controls endocrine function
- produces hormones released by the posterior pituitary ADH oxytocin
- PRODUCES RELEASING HORMONES AND INHIBITING HORMONES THAT ARE SENT TO THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY VIA THE HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM CONTROLLING THE RELEASE OF HORMONES CONTROLLING OTHER ENDOCRINE ORGANS.
-CONTAINS ANS NEURON CELL BODIES WHOSE AXONS TRAVEL TO THE ADRENAL MEDULLAE AND WHEN SYMPATHETIC ACTIVATION OCCURS, CAUSE THE ADRENAL MEDULLAE TO RELEASE NOREPINEPHRINE AND EPINEPHRINE
what are the parts of the pituitary gland?
anterior and posterior
what is the medical name for the anterior lobe of the pituitary gl
adenohypophysis
what are the type of cells found in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
glandular cells
what is the medical name for the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
neurohypophysis
what are the type of cells found in the posterior section of the pituitary gland
axon terminals extending from the hypothalamus
what is the infundibulum?
THE CONNECTION PORTAL BETWEEN THE HYPOTHALAMUS AND THE PITUITARY GLAND
what runs through the infundibulum
axons back and forth to the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary also the HYPOPHYSEAL PORTAL SYSTEM
what is the hypophyseal portal system
a specialized blood system
which is designed specifically to pick up hormones from the hypothalamus and taking them to the anterior pituitary and picking up hormones already produced from the pituitary.
how is the anterior pituitary controlled?
It is controlled by hormones. when there needs to be an uptick in production the hypothalamus sends hormones and when it needs decrease in hormones it releases inhibitory hormones.
how is the posterior pituitary controlled?
AXONS EXTENDING FROM THE HYPOTHALAMUS TO THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND RELEASE THEIR HORMONES INTO A CAPILLARY BED SURROUNDING THE PP.
Where are the hormones of the hypothalamus made?
inside the cell bodies of the neurons
what are the six hormones synthesized by the AP?
TSH ATCH FSH PRL GH LH
LH
LUTENIZING HORMONE regulates functions of testes and ovaries
TSH
Thyroid stimulating hormone self explanatory bitch
ATCH
adrenocorticotropic hormone
stimulates adrenal cortex hormone production
FSH
follicle stimulating hormone regulate reproductive functions testis and overies
PRL
prolactin; stimulates mammary gland development and milk production
GH
Growth hormone; regulate growth and metabolism
What causes each of the hormones to be produced in the AP.
five produced by receiving stimulating hormone
-prolactin stimulated by decrease of inhibiting hormone
what are the two hormones produced by the PP
ADH and oxytocin
where are the hormones of the PP made?
hypothalamus but they are released in the posterior pituitary.
why is ADH an important hormone
- controls water balance
- allows us to reclaim water from being lost as urination
- it increases blood pressure by increasing blood volume by taking it from the urine and putting it back into the bloodstream
What is ADH’s target
kidneys
what happens if vasopressin is not secreted(ADH)
your bladder will be filled with a bunch of undiluted urine and there will be a possibility that you will not have adequate blood pressure/blood volume.
what triggers ADH release?
high concentration of blood solutes such as salts cells and other blood matter.
what occurs when oxytocin is released?
- causes uterine contraction
- let down reflex, where nipples “stimulation” causes a lactating women feed her child.
- stimulates prostate gland to induce production of seimen.
what are the target regions of oxytocin?
men; prostate
women; mammary glands, uterus, nipples
what are the hormones produced by the thyroid gland
(thyroxine and triiodothyronine) they do the same thing just different structures and calcitonin
what do T3 and T4 control
metabolism specifically; -increases heart rate -increases cellular respiration -as a bi-product increased temp.
what does calcitonin control
it controls blood calcium concentrations
-it lowers blood calcium levels
what element is necessary for TH sythesis
Iodine
what hormone requires TH for full affect?
Growth Hormone
what is parathyroid?
it is the antithesis of calcitonin, it increases blood calcium levels
- it pulls calcium from the bones
- stimulates calcitriol production as well so the body will pull more calcium from the diet
what hormone is the most important in regulating blood calcium levels in an adult?
parathyroid hormone
what are the adrenal glands?
a pair of glands that lay on top of the kidney
what are the two parts of the adrenal glands?
ADRENAL CORTEX AND ADRENAL MEDULLA
what hormones does the adrenal cortex produce?
aldosterone
cortisol and androgens (converted to estrogen and testosterone)
what hormones does the adrenal medulla produce?
norepinephrine and epinephrine
what does aldosterone control
sodium potassium balances
what happens for aldosterone to be released?
low
- blood pressure
- blood volume
- increased potassium
What is aldosterone effect?
it reabsorbs sodium from the urine and adds it to the blood to increase blood pressure.
what does coritisol control?
energy metabolism of cells
-glucose and lipid utilization
why is maintaining glucose levels important?
the brain can only run on glucose
What do the non-neural cells utilize for metabolism when cortisol is released?
lipids
What causes cortisol to be released?
stress, also normal daily rhythms
what is the impact of cortisol?
depresses immune system
androgen
- adrenal cortex
- increases secondary sexual characteristics, women’s additional fat when compared to men, men’s additional muscle compared to women.
- poorly understood what it does in adults
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
- made in the adrenal medulla
- widespread sympathetic response
- target body
- sympathetic increase
melatonine
- made inpineal glands
- sets circadian rhythms
- visual input regarding daylight
insulin
- made inpancreas
- stimulates glucose uptake by body cells
- target body cells
- rising blood glucose
what is diabetes?
diabetes is either that your pancreas has an inability to make insulin or your body is unresponsive to it.
glucogen
- pancreas
- stimulates glucose uptake by the body cells
- liver/muscle
- low blood glucose
calcitriol
- active form of vitamin D
- synthesised in skin with help of sunlight
- converted to final form in kidneys
- causes increased absorption of calcium from food
- always active in the small intestin if the products to make it are present
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide ANP
- made in heart
- decreases blood volume and blood pressure.
- kidney, hypothalamus and blood vessels
- works to reduce the volumes of water salt and lipids in the blood
- opposes aldosterone
leptin
- made in adipose tissue
- feeling of being full
- affects brain
- opposes insulin
what are the hormones important for growth
growth hormone, PTH, Calcitriol, insulin
what hormone is released in the alarm phase of stress ?
NOREPINEPHRINE
what is the effect of norepinephrine and cortisol?
-EPINEPHRINE ACTIVATES THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT
RESPONSE,
- CORTISOL PREPARES THE BODY FOR A LONG TERM STRESS BY CONSERVING GLUCOSE FOR THE BRAIN by switching non-neuronal cellular activity to lipids.
-CORTISOL HAS THE NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS OF CREATING SUGAR AND SODIUM IMBALANCES (DUE TO ALDOSTERONE RELEASE) AND DEPRESSING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM.
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
- to maintain hydrostatic pressure
- move blood through veins and arteries
- deliver oxygen and nutrients and take away carbon dioxide and waste
What are the names for exchange vessels?
capillaries
Where can fluid leave and re-enter the cardiovascular system?
leave; capillaries
re-enter; lymph
What are the functions of blood?
distribution of -nutrients -respiratory gasses -hormones -metabolic wastes regulate -pH -Ions -body temp -fluid volume protect from -fluid loss(platelets clotting) -pathogens(WBC)
Why are blood types important?
blood types are important because they tell us what type of blood can be donated to person. Rh+ can’t go to a -, but a negative can go to a +.
what is an antigen
a antigen is a chemical marker on the outside of all cells. A antigen basically says “yep I am a part of your body mate don’t fucking kill me” or “yeah I am not a part of your body and you should probably kill me before I kill your arse”.
What is the function of red bone marrow?
its function is to produce red blood cells.
what is the most important formed element for hemostasis?
platelets, because without them you would not have the ability to stop your body from bleeding.
what is hemostasis?
the stopping of a flow of blood.
what are the major parts of the blood
plasma and formed elements
what is a formed element
formed elements are things that are “formed” by the body to carry out a function. RBC, WBC, platelets.
what are erythrocytes?
medical name for red blood cells. remember the r’s mean red blood cell
what are leukocytes?
they are white blood cells. Remember Leukemia is a cancer of the white blood cells.
what are the most common formed elements?
erythrocytes
what are the most important parts of plasma? bold is the majority part of the plasma.
WATER and plasma proteins
what make Erythrocytes good at carrying O?
- shape; they are dented in the middle so they have more surface area to carry more O.
- small: this makes it so you can pack tons of those fuckers into the already small cardiac system.
- composition; RBC are 97% hemoglobin and that allows more O to attach to them.
- very few mitochondria; this means that they do not use the precious O that they carry
- they are also flexible and stackable so they can fit into very small places.
What is different in RBC when compared to other cells?
no mitochondria, no nucleus and other organelles to free up space for hemoglobin
what is hemoglobin
-protein made specifically to pick up oxygen/C02 and release it easily.
what is hemoglobin made up of
- 4 globin chains
- 4 heme pigments
- and a atom of iron at the middle of it all
I hemoglobin only found in the RBC?
yes
where do RBC take up O and give it off? CO2?
receives O in lungs gives O off at tissues. CO2 opposite.
what do all blood cells stem from?
hemocytoblast gives birth to myeloid cell and then it is converted later to RBC.
what are lymphocytes?
lymphocytes are small single nucleated cells that are essentially lymph system WBC.
What types of formed elements come from the myeloid cells?
leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelets but not lymphocytes
erythropoietin
hormone that controls erythrocyte production
What organ makes erythropoietin?
kidney
what signals the body to create more erythropoietin?
low blood oxygen
how long does a erythrocyte live?
approximately 120 days
Where are old blood cells filtered out?
spleen liver
what parts of the red blood cell are reused after they can’t get through the spleen/liver filter?
- amino acids, building blocks of proteins red bone marrow.
- iron, goes back to red bone marrow
- heme is moved to liver then the digestive tract where it gets converted to different pigments for use around the body.
What is the make up of blood overall?
Plasma: approximately 55%
erythrocytes: approximately 45%
Leukocytes and platelets: approximately 1%
antigen vs antibodies.
antigen is a marker saying whether that cell is a part of the body or not.
Antibody means that the body will attack that type of cell if it has that antigen.
What is the universal blood donor and why?
O- is the universal donor because it has no antigens, and therefore nobody’s immune system will attack it becasue the immune system essentially cannot read it as being harmful or as part of the body, so the immune system just lets it pass.
what is the universal recipient?
AB+ because it has all of the antigens that blood can contain so there will be immune system attacks because the immune system only attacks when there is an unknown antigen.
when are antibodies present for a blood antigen?
They are present when the body does not have the antigen so O- has all the antibodies for all of the blood antigens. If you have the antigen you don’t have the antibody and visa versa.
What causes clumping when there is a mismatch of blood types?
Antibodies attack the newly introduced RBC’s but because there are so many cells the antibodies can not destroy the RBC’s quick enough, so backups are created. This is extremely harmful because it essentially creates clots around all the body which suffocates tissues from the nutrients tissues need to survive. The destruction of RBC’s can also lead to high levels of hemoglobin in the blood which can easily damage the kidneys.
what type of stem cell creates Lymphocytes
lymphoid stem cell
what is the job of lymphocytes?
defend the body against pathogens in the lymph
what are the types of leukocyte
neutrophil lymphocytes monocyte eosinophil basophil
neutrophils protect against?
bacteria slayers
lymphocytes protect against?
immune response against viruses. T and B Cells
Monocytes?
phagocytes
eosinophil
attack parasitic worms and in allergy response
basophil
promotes inflamation
most common leukocytes to least
N, L, M, E, B.
Never, let, mom, eat, bananas
Why would disease of the bone marrow be so life threatening?
because it will prevent the body from producing healthy blood cells. which keep us alive O,CO2 and heathy from pathogens.
Are platelets complete cells?
No
what are the parts of hemostasis?
vascular spasm, platelet plug, blood clotting
what happens during vascular spasm?
vascular spasm is when a cut vessel recognizes it cut and then it spasm reducing its relative size so less blood can get out. complicated as fuck really.
what happens during the platelet plug phase?
platelets stick to the broken collagen fibers of the vessel forming a platelet plug.
what is the role of the chemicals released when a platelet recognizes a cut in a vessel?
ADP, serotonin, and thromboxane A2 are released and this creates a positive feedback loop to bring more platelets to the site of vessel damage.
During coagulation, ___________ causes the conversion of fibrinogen to __________. This now active protein will cause….?
During coagulation, __ THROMBIN _________ causes the conversion of fibrinogen to __ FIBRIN ________. This now active protein will cause….?
A FIBRIN MESH TO FORM WHICH IS THE STRUCTURAL BASIS OF A BLOOD CLOT
In addition to fibrin, _________ion and vitamin _______ are essential for blood clotting.
In addition to fibrin, __ CALCIUM _______ion and vitamin ___ K ____ are essential for blood clotting.
why is the heart called a double pump?
Because both the left and the right ventricles pump independently from the pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.
what is the pulmonary circuit
it is the blood loop from the right ventricle to the lungs back to the left ventricle
what is the systemic circuit
It is the blood circuit that carries the blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart again.
what forces the blood to move?
pressure increase which occurs when from the pushing of the blood.
what prevents backflow of blood?
valves in the heart as well as in the veins
Does the heart need a lot of energy?
Yes for it contracts 100,000 times in a day alone.
- which necessitates a lot of ATP which requires a lot of oxygen and glucose for respiration.
where does the heart receive its nutrients from?
it receives it from the coronary arteries
what is the intrinsic conduction system?
sets the basic rhythm of the beating heart
What is the cardiac cycle?
the cardiac cycle is the cycle that the heart goes through from the contraction of the atria through the relaxation of the ventricles.
atria
plural for atrium
Are the events of the cardiac cycle restricted to only one side of the heart?
No, both sides of the heart perform this at the same time
why is it important that the body can change its cardiac output
It is important because if our hearts were always pumping at 90% of its beat capacity then we would always be out of breath even if we were sitting on the couch. it would also waste a lot of energy even though we were not in an active situation.
what is cardiac output(CO)?
cardiac output is the amount of blood that is being put into the heart and then being sent out.
How do extrinsic mechanisms (nervous system) affect CO?
- It controls the bpm which increases or decreases CO
How can the heart intrinsically, in a natural way, alter its output?
- more blood returned to heart
- more the cardiac muscle is stretched
- once the optimal muscle fiber length is achieved the more contractile force can be achieved.
What are the three layers of the heart?
epicardium, myocardium, endocardium
what are the layers of the heart made out of?
epicardium and endocardium; simple squamous
myocardium; is the cardiac muscle
trace the blood through the the blood system
- deoxy blood taken in by the SVC and IVC
- deoxy blood then taken in by the RA then preloaded into the RV
- pumped through the pulmonary semilunar valve through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs
- blood brought back to the heart oxygenated through the pulmonary veins.
- taken into the left atrium and ventricle then sent out of the heart through the aorta.
- blood sent all throughout the body then returns again deoxy in the SVC and IVC.
why are each side of the heart not the same?
The right ventricle has only has to pump blood to the lungs whereas the left has to send all the way to the brain
why can the heart not take in oxygen from the blood it pumps
the myocardium is too thick to let the oxygen diffuse all the way to the outside of the heart.
what are intercalated discs?
they are the bonding sites of cardiac muscle cells, they also contain gap junctions and desmosomes.
what are gap junctions?
They directly connect the cytoplasm of two cells, which allows various molecules, ions and electrical impulses to directly pass through a regulated gate between cells.
what are desmosomes?
a structure by which two adjacent cells are attached
why are gap junctions important?
gap junctions are important because they let electrical impulses pass from one cell to another efficiently, which allows the heart muscle to beat all at the same time instead of in independent spasms. Also it keeps the cells anchored together.
what are the two types of cardiac heart cell?
contractile muscle fibers and intrinsic muscle cells
what does it mean to be an autorhythmic cardiac muscle cell?
a cardiac muscle cells that spontaneously sends an action potential to stimulate the next cardiac muscle to send a action potential. THEY DO NOT CONTRACT.
what is a contractile muscle cell?
it is the average cardiac muscle cell that only contracts when a autorhythmic cell contracts. THESE CELLS CONTRACT.
make sure to study everything that has to do with cardiac action potential graphs.
It can’t be put into note card form so study that shit on your own.
What is the function and anatomy of the intrinsic conduction system?
to conduct an organized electrical signal through the heart to generate a coordinated contraction of the heart.
what are the parts of the intrinsic production system?
SA node, AV node, bundle branches, and purkinje fibers
What part of the intrinsic conduction system is considered the pacemaker?
SA node
Can another part of the intrinsic conduction system act as a pacemaker?
Yes the AV node can pick up the SA node’s job but the heart will not be as efficient.
What structures does the depolarization wave pass through and in what order?
SA node-AV node-AV Bundle-Purkinje fibers
what part of this system carries impulses to the ventricles?
AV bundles
what does an ECG show?
it shows a composite of all the electrical activity in the heart.
What is the order in which the heart is depolarized and then contracts?
- atria depolarize and contract
2. ventricles deplartize and then contract
what is the p wave associated with?
atria depolarization
what is the QRS complex associated with?
ventricle depolarization
what is T wave associated with?
repolarization of venticles
What would it mean if the P wave or QRS wave was absent from an ECG?
p wave missing; no atrial depolarization or contraction
QRS wave missing: no ventricular depolarization or contraction
what is contraction of in the heart called?
systole
what is relaxation of the heart called?
diasotle
Where and when does diastole and systole occur?
it occurs in all the of the atrium and ventricles but not at the same time.
What prevents blood from entering the atria during ventricular systole (ventricular blood)?
AV valves
What prevents arterial blood from entering the ventricles during ventricular diastole?
SL valves
SL stands for what
Semilunar any valve that lets blood out of the ventricles but not back in
AV stand for what?
atrioventricular; any valve that lets blood into the ventricles from the atrium but not back out
Is healthy cardiac muscle’s metabolism aerobic or anaerobic? Why?
aerobic because aerobic respiration is much more efficient at creating ATP.
how do we calculate cardiac output?
cardiac output= HEART RATE times STROKE VOLUME
What is the bainbridge reflex?
an increase in heart rate due to an increase in central venous pressure.
how can we change cardiac output?
EITHER BY INCREASING/DECREASING OUR HEART RATE OR BY INCREASING/DECREASING OUR STROKE VOLUME
How does sympathetic input affect cardiac output?
it increases it by increasing heart beat and by the bainbridge reflex and stroke volume.
How does the Bainbridge (atrial) reflex involve sympathetic fibers to the heart?
INCREASE STRETCH OF THE ATRIA TRIGGERS THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA TO INCREASE SYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY TO INCREASE HEART RATE
How does parasympathetic input to the heart affect heart rate?
slows it
what cranial nerve carries parasympathetic info to the heart?
vagus nerve
what is the primary controller of stoke volume?
preload
How does preload control stroke volume?
frank starling law of the heart
what is the frank starling law of the heart?
States that the stroke volume of the heart increases in response to an increase in the volume of blood filling the heart
what is the most important aspect of controlling CO.
VENOUS RETURN
what things affect Stroke Volume?
-increased sympathetic stimulation
Summarize all the effects of increased venous return on the heart. Summarize all the effects that increase CO by increasing SV. Summarize all the effects that increase CO by increasing HR.
write them down:
- venous return
- bainbridge(atrial) reflex
- Autonomic nervous system
- hormones
- preload
- contractility
