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Honors Biology > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the factors that regulate cell size?

A

demands on DNA: more materials are needed to carry out cell processes as a cell increases in size; the cell must divide since DNA cannot keep up with the demand once the cell reaches a certain size

exchange of materials: as S:V goes down, the exchange becomes less efficient; food, water, oxygen, and necessary ions are brought in while waste leaves and is removed

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2
Q

What is the surface area to volume ratio?

A

as a cell gets larger, the S:V goes down–the volume gets bigger than the surface area

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3
Q

asexual reproduction

A

simple cell division

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4
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction?

A

advantages: takes less time, is done individually, produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
disadvantages: is small/restricted in size and simple

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5
Q

sexual reproduction

A

fusion of 2 nuclei-needs 2 things to reproduce

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6
Q

What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?

A
  1. produces diverse offspring
  2. produces offspring that have a better chance of survival if the environment changes
  3. is large and complex
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7
Q

cell cycle

A

preparation for the division of cells

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8
Q

What are the phases of the cell cycle?

A

G1 (1st Gap Phase): cell growth where DNA is assessed

S Phase (Synthesis): DNA replication

G2 (2nd Gap Phase): assessment of DNA replication and production of organelles and molecules specific to cell division where DNA is checked to see if it copied properly

M phase: mitosis and cytokinesis where DNA is checked to see if it is separating properly

cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm and its contents

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9
Q

apoptosis

A

cell death

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10
Q

What are regulators of the cell cycle?

A

cyclins: proteins that regulate the timing of the cell cycle in eukaryotic cells-chemical signals tell the cell when to divide and proceed to the next phase of the cell cycle

internal regulators: cyclins that respond to events inside the cell-proteins make sure that the cell does not enter mitosis until the DNA is copied correctly and prevent the cell fro, entering anaphase before all the chromosomes attach to the spindles

external regulators: cyclins that respond to events outside of the cell-directs cell to speed up or slow down the cell cycle

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11
Q

mitosis

A

division of the nucleus and DNA

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12
Q

What are the phases of mitosis?

A

prophase: breakdown of nuclear membrane-centrioles separate and spindles form
metaphase: chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell and spindles attach to centromeres of the chromosomes
anaphase: chromatids separate from each other and become chromosomes that migrate along the spindles to opposite ends of the cell
telophase: chromosomes reach opposite ends of the cell and distend into chromatin-nuclear membrane forms
cytokinesis: cytoplasm is divided and the cell pinches in half-a cell plate that will eventually develop into a cell wall forms between the two cells

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13
Q

cancer

A

an overriding of cells that stop cell division

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14
Q

What causes cancer?

A
  1. tumors: masses of abnormal cells
  2. smoking
  3. radiation exposure
  4. viral infection
  5. chemical exposure
  6. p53: gene that allows a build-up of cells that do not respond to regulation
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15
Q

cell specialization

A

cells evolve to form cells that have specific functions

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16
Q

cell division

A

the cell divides to produce two “daughter cells”–replicates the DNA so each new cell gets a complete set

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17
Q

diploid

A

a full complement of chromosomes (2N)

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18
Q

haploid

A

half of the full diploid complement (N)

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19
Q

meiosis

A

the reduction of chromosomes for sexual reproduction

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20
Q

What are the phases of meiosis?

A

interphase I: cells undergo a round of DNA replication, forming duplicate chromosomes

prophase I: each chromosome pair with its corresponding homologous chromosome cross over to form a tetrad

metaphase I: spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

anaphase I: the fibers pull the homologous chromosome toward opposite ends of the cell

telophase I+cytokinesis I: nuclear membranes form and the cell separates into two cells

prophase II: results in two haploid daughter cells that each have half the number of chromosomes as the original cell

metaphase II: the chromosomes line up in a similar way to metaphase in mitosis

anaphase II: the sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell

telophase II+cytokinesis II: results in 4 haploid cells
gene
a chemical factor that determines traits-codes for protein production

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21
Q

gene

A

a chemical factor that determines traits–codes for protein production

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22
Q

allele

A

different forms of the same gene–particular expression of a gene

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23
Q

dihybrid

A

two different genes are passed from one generation to the next

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24
Q

complete dominance

A

identical phenotypes of the dominant homozygote and heterozygote

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25
Q

incomplete dominance

A

one allele is partially expressed-the heterozygous phenotype is somewhere in between the homozygous phenotypes

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26
Q

codominance

A

both alleles contribute to the phenotype of an organism and are separately expressed

27
Q

multiple alleles

A

a trait that has more than two alleles

28
Q

polygenic inheritance

A

traits produced by the interaction of many traits

29
Q

phenotypic ratio

A

dominant : recessive

30
Q

genotypic ratio

A

homozygous : heterozygous : homozygous

31
Q

gametes

A

4 different kinds of reproductive cells (egg or sperm)

32
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A

a double-stranded double helix that is located in the nucleus in eukaryotes that is made up of nucleotides

33
Q

nucleotides

A

phosphates, deoxyribose sugars, nitrogenous bases; held together by hydrogen bonds

34
Q

What are the 4 nitrogenous bases?

A
  1. adenine (A)
  2. cytosine (C)
  3. guanine (G)
  4. thymine (T)
35
Q

What is Chargaff’s rule?

A

complementary base-pairing: A=T; C=G

36
Q

replication

A

DNA makes a copy of itself; DNA becomes DNA

37
Q

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

A

DNA’s helper and cousin that is single-stranded

38
Q

What is the difference between DNA and RNA?

A

DNA: double-stranded, deoxyribose sugar, contains thymine

RNA: single-stranded, ribose sugar, contains uracil

39
Q

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

A

combines with proteins to make up ribosomes

40
Q

tRNA (transfer RNA)

A

brings amino acids to ribosomes

41
Q

mRNA (messenger RNA)

A

carries information from DNA to ribosomes

42
Q

transcription

A

DNA gives mRNA a message to deliver; DNA becomes RNA

43
Q

translation

A

mRNA changes into a protein; RNA becomes a protein

44
Q

codon

A

a group of 3 RNA bases that pairs with an anticodon

45
Q

amino acid

A

a monomer of a protein

46
Q

mutation

A

a change in the genetic material

47
Q

point mutation

A

a mutation involving one or a few nucleotides because they occur at a single point in the DNA sequence

48
Q

What are the types of point mutations?

A
  1. substitution: changes one base for another
  2. deletion: a piece of the DNA code is lost
  3. insertions: an extra piece of DNA is added
49
Q

chromosomal mutation

A

a mutation that produce changes in the number or structure of whole chromosomes

50
Q

What are the types of chromosomal mutations?

A
  1. frameshift mutations: changes multiple bases in codes
  2. deletion: a piece of a chromosome is lost
  3. duplication: a piece of DNA is copied too many times
  4. inversion: a segment flips and reads
  5. translocation: a segment breaks off and joins a different non-homologous chromosome
51
Q

polyploidy

A

a condition in which an organism has an extra set of chromosomes–lethal in humans but beneficial in some plants

52
Q

Charles Darwin?

A

the father of modern evolution

53
Q

What were Charles Darwin’s ideas on evolution?

A

modern organisms evolved over long periods of time through descent with common ancestors

54
Q

evolution

A

living things’ descent with modification from preexisting species; change over time

55
Q

survival of the fittest

A

those most suited to their environment are able to survive and reproduce

56
Q

What do fossils do?

A
  1. radiometric dating: determines the date of a fossil by measuring the amount of radioactive isotopes still in the specimen
  2. relative dating: uses rock layers to date fossils
57
Q

gene pools

A

all the genes-including all the alleles for each gene present in a population

58
Q

What is the source of genetic variation?

A

mutations

59
Q

allelic frequencies

A

the number of times an allele occurs in the gene pool, compared to the total number of alleles in that pool for that gene

60
Q

genetic equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium)

A

a stable, non-evolving state where allelic frequencies are not changing; p^2+2pq+q^2=1

61
Q

genetic drift

A

changes in allele frequencies due to random meeting of gametes during fertilization

62
Q

reproductive isolation

A

populations split and can no longer inbreed

63
Q

scientific naming

A

various names according to a specific field of study

Honors Biology (11 decks)

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