File 7.0-7.4: Pragmatics (F) Flashcards
pragmatics
Pragmatics is the study of the ways people use language in actual conversations. Pragmaticists study both how context helps to determine
whether a particular utterance is appropriate or inappropriate as well as how
changes to context alter sentences’ meanings.
What is the difference between sentences and utterances?
A sentence is a phrasal expression that expresses some (complete) idea.
Whenever a person speaks the sentence is becomes an utterance.
utterance
Something you utter, or say out loud.
context
Sentences don’t have context, but utterances do.
deitic
Or placeholder words are always determined by the context in which they are uttered.
What are the three types of context?
- Linguistic
- Situational
- Social
linguistic context
Related to what preceded a particular utterance in a discourse, what others have said earlier in a conversation. The answer ‘yes’ depends fully on the question asked before it.
situational context
Information about the situation in which it is uttered, even though it has not mentioned before in the discourse. If a goat walks by and someone says ‘it smells’.
social context
Says something about the relationships between the two people that are speaking and the roles. Your coach can tell you to run laps, but you cant tell him.
felicitous
An utterance that is situationally appropriate (How do I look? You look great!).
infelicitous
An utterance that is inappropriate (where do you work? I am happy).
cooperative principle
That what one says is intended to contribute to the purposes of the conversation. This depends on the context (the way to speak in a business meeting, or at a bar).
Which four conversational maxims are there?
- quality
- relevance
- quantity
- manner
conversational maxims
Principles guiding the conversational interactions of both speakers and hearers. Following these maxims is an important aspect of ensuring that our utterances are felicitous.
maxims of quality
Our expectations of honesty in conversation. Effective conversation is hindered if the speaker randomly mixes lies with the truth. Two maxims:
- Don’t what you believe is false
- Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
(Example: saying a spider can kill people- for a biologist at a conference, and a bitten human with his friends: they could believe the same statement and say it, it will be in different contexts, but their level of certainty can be the same: felicitous).
maxim of relevance/relation
Be relevant. When someone asks you for your dinner plans, don’t tell him how your work day was. When we make an inference, it is an assumption. “Is Renee dating anyone?” “Well, she goes to Zeeland every weekend”. The inference is that Renee is dating someone in Zeeland. Topic changing can happen, if you introduce it.
maxims of quantity
How much information it is appropriate for a speaker to give in a discourse. Sometimes less information is needed than other times, it depends on the circumstances: what is rude, or annoying?
maxims of manner
Differ critically from the other three maxims. They all have to do with the information a speaker gives/doesn’t give. Manner is about giving and interpreting information: being a good speaking partner. Four “guidelines”:
- Avoid obscurity of expression (jargon)
- Avoid ambiguity (he promised to phone at noon: did he promise to phone at noon, or did he promise it at noon?)
- Be brief (don’t use more words than needed)
- Be orderly (correct order in words)
flouting a maxim
Violating a maxim, but in the circumstances it’s ok and both people understand this.
Examples:
- not wanting to hurt someones feelings
- Changing the subject quickly while gossiping
- Being ironic
inference
A conclusion a person is reasonably entitled to draw based on a set of circumstances (seeing a colleague looking at the clock, and assuming the colleague needs to go).
implicature
Saying something, without having to literally say it.
Example:
A: “I would like coffee”
B: “There is a place around the corner named Flo’s”.
Implication: Flo’s sells coffee.
speech act
Anytime you (try to) speak, you perform a speech act.
felicity conditions for a request
- Speaker believes action has not been done
- Speaker wants the action to be done
- Speaker believes the hearer is able to do the action
- Speaker believes the hearer is willing to do the action
felicity conditions for a question
- Speaker does not know the asked information
- Speaker wants to know the information
- Speaker thinks the hearer can supply the information
exceptions for flouting questions
Examples:
- Teachers giving exams
- Lawyers questioning the whitness
- Parents teaching children linguistics
performative speech act
When an action named by the verb is accomplished in the performance of the speech.
Example: “I am throwing a ball”.
NOT: “I promise to take you to the store later”, as the verb “promise” refers to something happening later and not now.
direct speech act
Speech type for saying exactly what you are doing or want done (often rude). There are two ways:
1. Making a direct literal utterance
2. By using a performative verb that names the speech act
Example: I request that you take out the garbage
indirect speech act
Speech type for polite way of requesting or asking something Example: would you mind giving me the sugar (please)?
declarative
Which speech type are these?
He is cooking.
I would like to know.
I ask you.
interrogative
Speech type that is always a question (Is he cooking the chicken?)
imperative
Speech type that expresses a command (Cook the chicken).
Which type of speech act is: I need you to take out the garbage
declarative order/request
Which type of speech act is: Let me tell you that Hennie give a lot of free info
imperative assertion
Which type of speech act is: I ask you what Hennie’s last name is
declarative question
Which type of speech act is: Can you tell me where Petra lives?
interrogative question
