Fighting Disease in the 19th and 20th Centuries Flashcards
1
Q
What happened in 1796?
A
Jenner discovers smallpox vaccination
2
Q
What happened in 1832 and 1854?
A
Cholera epidemics
However in 1854 John snow discovered that it was spread through water
3
Q
When was Chadwick’s report on public health published?
A
1842
4
Q
What did Simpson discover in 1847?
A
That chloroform can send patients to sleep
5
Q
What was significant about 1848?
A
The first public health act was put forward
6
Q
In what year was the first smallpox vaccination made compulsory?
A
1853
7
Q
What was significant about the 1854 Crimean war?
A
Florence Nightingale shows that clean hospitals reduce deaths from infection
8
Q
In what year does Queen Victoria use chloroform?
A
1857
9
Q
When did Pasteur publish his germ theory?
A
1861
10
Q
What happened in 1865?
A
Lister discovers and proves that carbolic acid can be used to kill germs during operations
11
Q
In what year did poor people get the vote?
A
1867
12
Q
What did Koch do in 1872?
A
He begins investigating different germs which cause disease
13
Q
When was the second Public Health act created and why was this significant?
A
1875
Towns are instructed to clean streets and sewers
Towns can charge taxes to do this now
14
Q
In what year did Pasteur find a vaccination for chicken cholera using weak germs?
A
1879
15
Q
Who suggested the use of rubber gloves during surgery in 1890?
A
Halstead
16
Q
When were blood groups discovered by Landsteiner?
A
1900
17
Q
When did the liberal reforms take place?
A
1906 - 1911
18
Q
What did the first magic bullet cure?
A
syphilis
19
Q
When did the first chemical compound (a ‘magic bullet’) cure infection?
A
1911
20
Q
What happened from 1914 - 1918?
A
Plastic surgery improved because of wounds during the First World War
21
Q
When does Fleming discover that penicillin kills germs?
A
1928
22
Q
In which decade did Fleming and Florey develop penicillin?
A
1930s
23
Q
What happened in 1939-45 regarding penicillin?
A
It was mass-produced because of the second world war
24
Q
When was the NHS founded?
A
1948
25
When was the first heart transplant?
1967
26
When did deaths from AIDS begin?
1980s
27
In the 1800s what was no longer popular?
Supernatural explanations and the theory of the four humours
28
What was the main belief in the early nineteenth century?
That Miasma caused disease
29
What was known and not known about bacteria?
They knew bacteria existed but they didn't know how they were connected to disease
30
What was dreaded about smallpox?
There was no known cure
31
Give 5 facts about inoculation
Popularised by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
It involved spreading a small amount of pus from a smallpox scab onto the skin of a healthy person
They got a minor case of smallpox which helped their body build up immunity to the real thing
No-one knew quite why it worked
Some people were reluctant
32
What disadvantages were there regarding smallpox inoculation?
Poor people could not afford it
Sometimes it failed if the doctor got the dose wrong, and the patient could get severe smallpox
Some people were reluctant to be inoculated because they were just as scared about being inoculated as they were about getting the real thing
33
What was better than inoculation?
Vaccination
34
Who discovered vaccination?
Edward Jenner
35
What disease prevented smallpox?
Cowpox
36
How did Jenner test his new idea about vaccination?
He injected a young boy called James Phipps with cowpox matter
Then later injected him with smallpox matter
James survived
He then tested it on 23 other cases
They were all successful
37
What did Jenner do in 1798?
He published his findings
38
In what year did parliament grant Jenner £30,000 to continue his work?
1802
39
In what year was vaccination being used in the USA?
1803
40
What happened in 1807?
Parliament granted more money for Jenner's work
41
When was smallpox made compulsory?
1853
42
Why was vaccination controversial?
Doctors who performed inoculation were worried about losing business
Jenner was not respected by leading people
Some people thought it was not the government's role to get involved in such things
It was unnatural to give a human an animal disease
43
Who was Louis Pasteur?
He was a chemist who worked in France
44
In 1857 what was Pasteur asked to do?
He was asked by wine producers to find out why their alcohol was going sour
45
What did he use to discover that germs were making the alcohol go sour?
Microscopes
46
What did Pasteur discover about milk and beer?
That it also went sour, just like wine, because of germs
47
What did Pasteur discover about heating liquids?
That it killed the germs
48
What was 'spontaneous generation'?
Decay creating germs
49
Who was Koch?
He was a German doctor who read Pasteur's work and studies germs
50
What did Koch discover in 1872?
That he could dye (stain) germs. By doing this he could identify which germs caused which diseases
51
Which germ did Koch identify in 1872?
Anthrax
52
Which germ did Koch identify in 1882?
Tuberculosis
53
Which germ did Koch identify in 1883?
Cholera
54
Explain how Pasteur accidentally discovered vaccinations
His assistant left a batch of chicken cholera germs exposed to the air while he was away on holiday
When he returned, he used the stale batch to test them on the chickens
They did not die
But when they gave the same chickens the full dose of germs from a new batch, the chickens survived that too
55
What did Pasteur realise because of the chicken cholera discovery?
That the weakened germs had protected the chickens from the disease.
56
What vaccination did Pasteur find in 1881?
A vaccination against anthrax in animals
57
What vaccination did Pasteur find in 1882?
His first vaccination for humans, against rabies
58
What was impractical about Pasteur's work?
He only worked on ways of preventing disease not curing it
59
When was the first magic bullet made, what was it called, and what did it cure?
1911
Salvarsan 606
Cured syphilis
60
Who went on to develop a magic bullet to cure blood poisoning?
Gerhard Domagk
61
What was the magic bullet to cure blood poisoning made from?
Sulphonamide
62
What was bad about the magic bullet that was used to cure blood poisoning?
It also attacked the kidneys and liver so was not used unless someone was really ill
63
What was penicillin?
An antibiotic
64
How did Alexander Fleming accidentally discover penicillin?
One day, he went off on holiday and did not do his washing up. He left petri dishes with bacteria in them on his lab bench.
He came back to discover that a mould called penicillin was growing in the petri dish.
This mould had killed all of the bacteria around it!
65
What were the two main events regarding penicillin?
First Joseph Lister identified the penicillin mould in 1872 but had not taken it further.
Alexander Fleming discovers it by accident in 1928 and wrote a report on his findings
66
Why didn't Flemings work take off immediately?
No-one thought it was important at the time.
67
In what year did Florey and Chain read Fleming's report?
1930s
68
What did Florey and Chain do with Fleming's work?
They figured out a way to turn the mould into an antibiotic which could be injected into the body.
69
What happened when Florey and Chain tested penicillin on a human?
They treated him for blood poisoning for five days and he quickly got better.
But when they ran out of penicillin the policeman fell ill again and died
70
What problem did Florey and Chain face when trying to develop penicillin?
They needed to find a way of mass producing it.
| But they did not have the money to do this.
71
What are the three main stages of the development of penicillin?
1 - Alexander Fleming discovers the power of penicillin - by accident
2 - Florey and Chain turn penicillin into a treatment
3 - The Second World War and mass production
72
In what year was the Second World War raging, and caused need for ways to protect against infection?
1942
73
By what year was there enough penicillin to treat all the soldiers injured in the D-Day invasions?
1944
74
What happened to Fleming in 1942 which caused him and penicillin to become famous?
Fleming obtained some penicillin from Florey and used it to treat a friend who was dying of meningitis. When the friend recovered, the hospital told the press and almost overnight Fleming and penicillin were famous
75
What are the 5 different factors that allowed people to make discoveries?
```
Chance
Science and Technology
Government
War
Individual Genius
```
76
What factor is used to explain:
| Fleming not doing the washing up and finding penicillin in his petri dishes
Chance
77
What factor is used to explain:
| Experiments - Fleming on killing germs and Florey on humans
Science and Technology
78
What factor is used to explain:
| The US government funding the mass production of penicillin
Government
79
What factor is used to explain:
Troops needing a drug that could cure infections from injuries but also the illnesses that many of them got in a war that spread around the world
War
80
Who identified penicillin?
Joseph Lister
81
Who proved that penicillin could cure infection in people?
Alexander Fleming
82
Who developed mass production of penicillin?
Florey
83
Who got funding for the mass production penicillin?
Florey
84
Who developed a method to introduce penicillin into the body?
Florey and Chain
85
Who carried out detailed experiments in penicillin to show that it could kill germs?
Fleming
86
Who used penicillin as an antiseptic?
Fleming
87
Who used penicillin as an antibiotic?
Florey and Chain
88
What did people think hospitals were in the 1800s?
Places to die
89
What did people think hospitals were in the 1900s?
Places to get well
90
Why were hospitals such unhealthy places in the 1800s?
```
They had cramped stuffy wards
No fresh air
Infections spread quickly
The nursing staff were not trained
Nurses were often criticised for being dirty or drunk
Few toilets
Poor sewerage system
Wards were not cleaned often enough
Wards were not cleaned effectively enough
```
91
Why were hospitals greatly improved in the 1900s?
Because of the influence of Florence Nightingale
92
What did Florence Nightingale believe?
She believed that sanitation was the key and the first duty of her nurses was to keep everything clean
93
What breakthrough happened in the 1900s regarding nurses?
There were Nursing Schools all around the country teaching Nightingale's methods and infection and death rates in hospitals were greatly reduced
94
When did Florence Nightingale live?
1820-1910
95
What is Florence Nightingale's background?
She came from a rich English family who were opposed to her being a nurse.
Her father was active in the anti-slavery movement
96
What training did Florence Nightingale have?
Despite her parent's opposition, she went to Germany to train as a nurse.
97
Why was Florence Nightingale involved in the Crimean war?
She read an article about the terrible conditions for soldiers in the Crimea and she volunteered to help.
98
What did Florence Nightingale do to help in the Crimean war?
She cleaned up the army hospital, despite opposition.
| Death rate in the army hospital dramatically reduced because diseases did not spread in these conditions
99
What did Florence Nightingale do when she returned from the Crimean war?
She began working on improving the quality of nursing.
| She was awarded the Order of Merit in 1907
100
Did Florence Nightingale believe in the germ theory?
No, she believed in Miasma which was why she tried to clean hospitals, remove smells and improve ventilation
101
Did Florence Nightingale believe in women being doctors?
No, she did not approve of women doctors
102
When did Mary Seacole live?
1805-1881
103
What is Mary Seacole's background?
She was born in Kingston, Jamaica.
Her father was a Scottish Soldier
Her mother was a free black slave who ran a boarding house in Kingston
104
What medical training did Mary Seacole have?
Her mother treated illness at her boarding house using herbal medicines.
She passed this knowledge on to Mary
105
What medical experience did Mary Seacole have before 1854?
In 1850, cholera came to Kingston. She treated patients and saved many.
Her fame grew
106
How did Mary Seacole end up in Crimea?
She heard about a cholera epidemic in the Crimea and travelled to London
Volunteered to the army and to Nightingale but was refused because of lack of training
She travelled to Crimea at her own expense
107
What did Mary Seacole do in the Crimea?
She set up the British Hotel quite close to the front and sold food and drink to the soldiers which paid for her to treat them
She also treated patients on the battlefield and is reported to have treated soldiers of both sides while the fighting was still going on
108
What did Mary Seacole do when she returned from the Crimea?
She returned to London and went bankrupt as she had financed the trip herself
'The Times' and 'Punch' tried to support her but she never raised enough money to carry on treating patients
109
What treatments did Mary Seacole carry out?
She carried out operations on people suffering from knife and gunshot wounds
During a cholera epidemic in Panama, she carried out an autopsy and learned about the way the disease attacked the body
110
What were the main killers in the second half of the twentieth century?
Cancer and heart disease
111
What was seen as a major cause of disease? And how did people work at changing this?
Lifestyle
Educating people to help them improve their lifestyle, such as explaining that stopping smoking helps to prevent cancer, reduced the number of people getting cancer in the first place
112
Smear tests for cervical cancer and screening for blood pressure levels are examples of what?
Testing for early diagnosis to prevent diseases spreading further
113
What is palliative care?
It treated the symptoms of a disease rather than being a cure, which allowed people to live with a disease for many years, with a good quality of life (especially in the case of cancer).
114
Give an example of a new infectious disease that appeared in the twentieth century
AIDS
115
Where did AIDS start?
As an epidemic in Africa
116
Does AIDS have a cure?
No
117
What do drugs for AIDS do?
They can't cure the disease but they lessened the symptoms and allowed a good quality of life.
118
Give a disadvantage of AIDS drugs
They were expensive and hard to obtain
119
Which 'super-bug' was resistant to antibiotics?
MRSA
120
What helps to prevent MRSA?
Cleaning hospital wards
| Washing hands with antibacterial lotion
121
Which old disease was still around but was becoming resistant to drugs?
Malaria
122
What helps prevent the spread of malaria?
Mosquito nets in affected areas
123
Give a cause of ill health in the nineteenth century
Infectious and water-borne diseases, especially smallpox and cholera
124
Gave a cause of ill health in the twentieth century
Lifestyle and diseases of old age, especially cancer and heart disease
125
What were the explanations of ill health during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Early nineteenth century = miasma
| From 1860s: germ theory
126
Give some examples of treatments used in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries
All Natural - Herbal treatments, vaccinations, chemical drugs (magic bullets), antibiotics (e.g. penicillin)
127
What were the factors for change regarding medicine during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Government making vaccination compulsory
War boosted Pasteur and Koch's rivalry
Science and Technology (really important as it led to more developments in the fight against disease)
128
What impacts did all these discoveries have on the world?
A very widespread impact:
From 1860s germ theory led to improved public health which affected everyone
Vaccination against smallpox was made compulsory in the nineteenth century
With introduction of NHS in 1948, doctors, hospital treatment and drugs were available to everyone
