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fertility Flashcards

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1
Q

fertility meaning

A

Production of a live birth

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2
Q

Fecundity meaning

A

physiological capacity to conceive (reproductive potential)

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3
Q

Infertility meaning

A

Inability to produce a live birth

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4
Q

Parity meaning

A

number of children born alive to a woman e.g. first born = parity 1

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5
Q

Menarche meaning

A

onset of menstruation

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6
Q

Menopause meaning

A

end of menstruation

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7
Q

Mean Age of Childbearing (MAC) meaning

A

AVERAGE age a woman has a child

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8
Q

Peak Age of Childbearing (PAC) meaning

A

the MODAL age a woman will have a child

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9
Q

what are the 3 ‘maximum fertility’ assumptions

A

1) Assume female menarche to menopause as ages 15-49
2) Assume 9 months of pregnancy.
3) Assume 18 months of breast feeding
- means 1 child ever 2.2 years - theoretical maximum fertility rate is 16 children per woman - could get broken e.g. russian woman had 69

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10
Q

what is natural fertility

A
  • The level of reproduction that exists in the absence of deliberate fertility control
  • ‘Natural’ Fertility is much lower than ‘Maximum’ fertility
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11
Q

Most famous “High Fertility” Society

A

The Hutterites
- Lived in Agrarian communities in NE US and Canada
- Doubled population 6 times in 100 years
- In 1936, TFR was 11

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12
Q

what are fertility characteristics in the human species

A
  • We as a species have kept our fertility rates low to maximise care in our offspring
  • Social components of fertility are much greater than the biological components
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13
Q

whats the crude birth rate

A

Number of live births per 1000 population in a given year
births (Bt) / population (Pt) x 1000

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14
Q

why is Crude Birth Rate not good measurement

A
  • Some populations are not exposed to the risk of pregnancy (children, old people, men, etc.)
  • Variations in the age distribution will affect the CBR
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15
Q

what is the General feritility rate

A

Number of live births per 1000 women ages 15-49 in a given year
births (Bt) / women ages 15-49 x 1000

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16
Q

why is General feritility rate a better measurement than Crude Birth Rate

A
  • Relates births to the age-sex group at risk of giving births (Women aged 15-49)
  • More refined than CBR, but still a rather crude metric
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17
Q

what is the Child/Woman Ratio

A
  • Number of children under age 5 per 1000 women of childbearing age in a given year
  • Very similar to GFR but instead of births it uses the Child Population
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18
Q

what is Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

A

Number of births per year to women of a specific age group, sometimes written as 𝑛𝐹𝑥
e.g. ASFR 15-19 = births / women aged 15-19 x n (year interval - would be five for this example)

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19
Q

what are all of the ASFRs called. what can this be used for

A

Fertility Schedule
Can be used for:
- comparisons of fertility behavior across ages
- comparisons of fertility over time
- comparisons of fertility across countries/populations

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20
Q

whats the total fertility rate (TFR)

A
  • The average number of children that would be born to a woman in her reproductive lifetime
  • It is the sum of all of the Age-Specific Fertility Rates
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21
Q

whats the Best single measure of fertility and why

A

total fertility rate (TFR)
- independent of age structure of a population
- Easy to interperate and calculate
- good to compare fertility across populations

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22
Q

what is Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)

A

The average number of daughters that would be born to a woman in her lifetime
- GRR is just like TFR, but it counts only daughters and directly measures “reproduction” – a woman reproducing herself in the next generation by having a daughter

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23
Q

what is Net Reproduction Rate (NRR)

A

The average number of daughters that would be born to a woman in her lifetime while taking into account her risk of dying
- takes into account the fact that some women will die before entering and completing their child-bearing years

24
Q

what does NRR and TFR have to be for Replacement Level Fertility

A

When NRR = 1.0 - Surviving women have exactly enough daughters to replace themselves in the population

When TFR = 2.1 - Survivors have exactly enough people to replace themselves in the population
**Remember, TFR does not include mortality adjustments
**Replacement Level Fertility does not imply: CBR= CDRPopulation growth rate = 0

25
Q

what does Fertility Behaviors focus on

A

women
- If a woman never has intercourse, she will never have a baby
- A man will never have a baby, no matter what he does

26
Q

what does fertility vary in

A

space and time
To understand why, 2 questions must be asked
 How do people control fertility?
 Why do people want to control fertility?

27
Q

how was what fertility varied in understood

A

John Bongaarts in 1978 - identified 11 factors (how’s) through which any social factor (why’s) must operate

28
Q

3 phases of fertility

A

1) Intercourse
2) Conception
3) Gestation

29
Q

3 main factors within the Proximate Determinants of Fertility that John Bongaarts identified

A

I. Factors affecting exposure to intercourse
II. Factors affecting exposure to conception
III. Factors affecting successful births

30
Q

explain the Factors affecting exposure to intercourse

A

Formation of unions:
1.Age of entry into intercourse
2. Permanent celibacy
3. Reproductive period spent between unions

Exposure to intercourse within unions:
4. Voluntary abstinence
5. Involuntary abstinence
6. Coital frequency

31
Q

explain the Factors affecting exposure to conception

A

7.Involuntary fecundity or infecundity
 Breast-feeding, etc.
8. Use or nonuse of contraception.
9.Voluntary fecundity or infecundity.
 Medical treatment, vasectomy, etc

32
Q

explain Factors affecting successful births

A
  1. Involuntary fetal mortality (miscarriage)
    11.Voluntary fetal mortality (abortion)
33
Q

what are the 4 Main Determinants

A

1) Age at marriage
2) Use / Non-use of Contraceptives
3) Incidence of abortion
4) Involuntary infecundity

34
Q

6 intercourse variables

A
  1. Age of entry into intercourse
  2. Permanent celibacy
  3. Reproductive period spent between unions
    4.Voluntary abstinence
  4. Involuntary abstinence
  5. Coital frequency
35
Q

explain the ‘Age of entry into intercourse’ intercourse variable

A

Permanent virginity is rate, but the longer one maintains it the lower their fertility will be
- Higher fertility results with younger childbearing ages

36
Q

explain the “Permanent celibacy” intercourse variable

A
  • Those women who never marry
  • Highest permanent celibacy ever = Ireland in 1971, 18% of women aged 40-44 had never married
  • Never married =/= childless
37
Q

explain the ‘Reproductive period spent between unions’ intercourse variable

A
  • Married people have more ‘viable’ sex than unmarried people
  • Women who have been divorced have lower fertility than women who are married but have never divorced
  • Couples in ‘long distance’ relationships have lower fertility
38
Q

explain the ‘Voluntary abstinence’ intercourse variables

A
  • Not very popular
  • Uncommon, except after the birth of a child (post-partem)
  • Post-Partem sex is taboo in some places for up to two years
  • 37 year old woman with 5 kids doesn’t want any more. Husband says no contraceptives. Woman says no more sex
39
Q

explain the ‘Involuntary abstinence’ intercourse variables

A
  • Not very common and not very popular
  • Jobs: Transportation, truck drivers, separate vacations
  • Medical: hospitalization, disease, etc.
  • Migration: labor separation
40
Q

explain the ‘Coital frequency’ intercourse variables

A
  • More sex = more pregnancy
     3 times per week=51% pregnant in 6 months
     1 time per week=32% pregnant in 6 months
  • Marriage, Age, and Sex
    ◦ 1950: Married Women aged 21-25 twice as much sex as women aged 41-45
    ◦ 2002: Married Women aged 21-25 have equal sex as women aged 41-45.
     Why?
41
Q

2 conception variables

A
  1. Breast Feeding
  2. Contraception
  3. Voluntary Infecundity
  4. gestation variables
  5. Abortion
42
Q

explain the ‘breast feeding’ conception variables

A
  • Breast Feeding prolongs post-partem amenorrhea and suppresses ovulation
    ◦ 2 months for women who don’t breast feed
    ◦ 10-18 months for women who do
  • Modernization reduces breast feeding
  • Yet breast feeding declines as fertility declines
43
Q

explain the ‘contraception’ conception variables

A
  • Physical Methods e.g. Diaphragm, Female Condom, IUD
  • Chemical Method e.g. The Pill, implants, Injections
  • Breast Feeding
  • Condoms
  • Withdrawl
  • Rhythm Method
    ◦ If an average couple were to spend a year doing nothing but relying upon chance to not get pregnant, there is an 85% chance they’d get pregnant
44
Q

explain the ‘Voluntary Infecundity’ conception variables

A

Females
◦ Tubal Ligation (getting your tubes tied)
◦ Hysterectomy
Males
◦ Vasectomy
◦ Castration

45
Q

3 gestation variables

A

Miscarriage
Abortion
RU-486 (day after pill)

46
Q

explain the ‘abortion’ gestation variables

A
  • Single most often used form of birth control in the world today
  • big reason why fertility is low in many parts of the World including US, Canada, Europe, and China.
  • Abortion rates increased in the US from 1973-1990, but has dropped since
47
Q

what is the PERCEPTION of how more kids help

A
  • Human lottery tickets (hey, one of them may get rich)
  • Help with the Crops, house work, etc.
  • Migrate elsewhere and send money home
48
Q

what is the REALITY of how more kids help

A
  • Parents usually die before kids can contribute
  • In pre-modern societies, quantity was more important than quality of children
  • Weak link between fertility and perceived need for old-age security
49
Q

what 3 things drive fertility outcomes

A

1) DTT
2) Ideational or Functionalist Theories
3) Economic Theories

50
Q

explain DTT as a factor that drives fertility outcomes

A
  • Fertility will decline because you don’t need as many kids to survive (mortality driving fertility)
  • High fertility is incompatible with an industrial economy (economic development drives fertility)
51
Q

explain Ideational or Functionalist Theories as a factor that drives fertility outcomes

A
  • Ideas about ideal family size
  • All people want to control family size, they just don’t know how
  • Different social organization leads to different fertility <- differences attributed to proximate determinants
52
Q

explain Economic Theories as a factor that drives fertility outcomes

A
  • Home Economics
     Cost of children
     Couple’s Income
     Preferences for child vs. consumption
     Preferences for quantity vs. quality
     “Pigouvian Tax”
  • Gary Becker
53
Q

explain the fertility history of India

A
  • India gains independence in 1947 - TFR ~ 6.0
  • 1952: First national population policy to reduce TFR
    by providing family planning services → total failure
     Lack of contraception, strong tradition of large families, difficult implementation due to overwhelmingly rural population
  • 1956: 2nd national population policy - focused on increasing access to family planning - fertility fell from ~ 6.0 to ~5.7
  • Patriarchal family structure, strong son preference,
    young age at marriage, caste differences for access,
    and conservative beuraucracy
54
Q

explain India fertility policies

A
  • 1975: “The Emergency”
  • India’s population nearly doubled since Independence
  • Indian Health Minister coins the phrase “Development is the best contraceptive” in 1974
  • Aggressive anti-poverty programs implemented e.g. education opportunities, capped lending rates
  • Fertility has continued to decline – without coercive population policies
  • “Westernization” continues
  • Embraced Development as the means for reducing fertility - TFR falls from 6.0 in 1947 to 2.5 in 2012
55
Q

explain China fertility policies

A
  • Mao gains power in 1949 - Immediately encouraged fertility control
    ◦ Slogan “Later, longer, fewer.”
    ◦ All family planning methods were made available
  • TFR=5.5 in 1953 and fell to 2.9 in 1978
  • Yet, 1978 is the implementation of the One Child Policy - If fertility was falling, why this policy? - probs not needed
  • Without policy, fertility would have probably continued to fall - 1953-1978 fertility fell while access to family planning was voluntary – but seen as only allowed one child, may aswell make most of it, right?
  • Sex Ratio at birth is skewed :( - Son preference and SRB
56
Q

explain the sex ratio at birth

A

Sex Ratio at Birth = 105 for normal countries
 Above 105 = more baby boys
 Below 105 = more baby girls
 110 = high
 115= really high
 120= really really high

57
Q

what is Son preference and SRB

A
  • Sex-selective abortion becomes very common in countries with a strong son preference
  • Too many boys, not enough girls
  • Son preference usually leads to higher fertility, in the absence of family planning

population & society (9 decks)

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