Family Diversity Flashcards
legislation that show a change in attitudes in family
Adoption and Children Act 2002 – gave unmarried couples, including same-sex couples, the right to adopt.
Civil Partnership Act 2004 – introduced civil partnerships for same-sex couples. Learn more about Civil Partnership Act 2004.
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008 – recognised female same-sex couples as the legal parents of children conceived through the use of donated sperm, eggs or embryos. The Act also made changes to surrogacy law, allowing male same-sex couples to apply for parental orders.
Marriage (Same Sex Couples) Act 2013 – introduced marriage for same-sex couples.
Divorce, Dissolution and Separation Act 2022 – introduced no-fault divorce. It is worth noting that under the previous divorce law, same-sex couples could not rely on the fact of adultery in support of a divorce petition.
Factors which explain the rise in divorce-Changing attitudes to divorce/ cohabitation – less stigma
Stigma refers to social disapproval. In the past divorce and divorcees were stigmatised. Churches used to condemn divorcees. Mitchell and Goody note that since the 1960s there has been a rapid decline in the stigma attached to divorce. As stigma has declined, divorce has increased, and in turn it has become more normalised. In the past cohabitation was viewed as ‘living in sin’ and children born out of wedlock were stigmatised (mother and baby homes)
Factors which explain the rise in divorce Secularisation
Secularisation refers to the process of society becoming less religious. Religious institutions and leaders are less powerful than in the past. Church attendance has rapidly declined as has membership of religious groups. This means people are less concerned about religious teaching or what religious institutions think.
Factors which explain the rise in divorce-Higher expectations of marriage
Fletcher is a Functionalist who argues that the higher expectations which people place on marriage are a major source of rising divorce rates. Over the past couple of centuries there has been an increasing emphasis on romantic love and so marriage is increasingly seen not as a binding contract but as a means of personal fulfilment and happiness.
Importantly, rather than seeing this as leading to the decline in marriage he argues it has strengthened marriage. Most adults still marry and rates of re-marriage are very high. This shows that marriage is still a centrally important institution in society
Factors which explain the rise in divorce-Changes in the law
Before 1857 people needed an act of parliament to obtain a divorce!
1923 – the grounds for divorce were equalised between men and women
1971 – DIVORCE REFORM ACT The grounds for divorce were widened so that ‘irretrievable breakdown’ could be given as grounds for divorce rather than having to prove adultery, cruelty, desertion as had been the case in the past.
After this change there was the biggest and starkest rise in divorce.
In 2022 legislation was created to make ‘no blame’ divorces.
Factors which explain the rise in divorce- changes in women’s position
The majority of divorces are filed by women and feminists argue that women are increasingly willing to file for divorce because they are more financially independent. Women are far more likely to be in paid work now. They have greater equality in education and there are laws against discrimination in the work place. Welfare benefits also mean that women have that source of support.
Allan and Crowe argue marriage is less embedded in the economic system now. There are fewer family businesses and spouses are less economically dependent on each other. Women have their own sources of income
Feminist view
Married women face a dual burden or triple shift and carry an unfair burden of housework and childcare.
Whilst there is a trend towards equality at work, at home women are in a patriarchal system. This is a source of huge frustration for women and the fact both partners work mean there is less energy for the emotion work needed to address problems which may arise (Hochschild).
Bernard argues women feel a growing dissatisfaction with patriarchal marriage, women are becoming more conscious of their oppression and rejecting it.
Postmodernist perspective - individualism
Beck and Giddens argue that traditional norms and expectations such as the duty to stay with your partner for life no longer have such a hold over individuals.
People are more individualistic and are seeking a ‘pure relationship’ based on love and happiness, in which their needs are met and if this doesn’t happen will end it more easily.
In working life people will also seek out their own fulfilment which can cause conflict at home.
Is cohabitation replacing marriage?(short term- morgan
Patricia Morgan argues that the rise in cohabitation is part of a worrying trend of the decline of marriage. Cohabitation is part of a trend towards ‘serial monogamy’ – people having a succession of sexual partners one after another. She sites evidence from the Household Panel survey which shows cohabiting couples tend to either marry or split up.
Is cohabitation replacing marriage?- long term -Chandler
Joan Chandler argues that people are choosing to cohabit as a long-term alternative to marriage. This is reflected in the fact about 50% of children are born to unmarried couples. In 1984 – 30% of people lived together before marriage. In 2007 80% of people lived together before marriage. (British Household Panel survey)
Changing patterns of family life: Parents and children-CHILDBEARING KEY TRENDS
CHILDBEARING KEY TRENDS
Less people are having children and they are having them later in life.
Half of all children are now born outside of marriage. In the vast majority of these cases the parents are cohabiting.
In 2021 the average age of women having their first child was 30 and men 32. In 1971 for women it was 24.
In 1964 the average number of children per woman was 2.95, now it is 1.44
figures that show changing patterns in lone-parent families
LONE PARENT FAMILES
22% of all families with one or more children are LPFs.
One child in four lives in a lone parent family.
85% of these are headed by a mother
STEP (RECONSTITUED) FAMILIES
Over 10% of all families with dependent children are stepfamilies.
In 85% of stepfamilies at least one child is from the woman’s previous relationship.
Stepfamilies can take a diverse number of forms and structures.
Ronald Fletcher
Fletcher is a Functionalist who argues that the higher expectations which people place on marriage are a major source of rising divorce rates. Over the past couple of centuries there has been an increasing emphasis on romantic love and so marriage is increasingly seen not as a binding contract but as a means of personal fulfilment and happiness.
Importantly, rather than seeing this as leading to the decline in marriage he argues it has strengthened marriage. Most adults still marry and rates of re-marriage are very high. This shows that marriage is still a centrally important institution in society
Rob Chester: the neo-conventional family
chester Argues there has been some increase in family diversity but this is insignificant. The important change is a move from nuclear families to the neo-conventional family; a dual earner family in which both spouses go to work. This is similar to the symmetrical family described by Young and Wilmott.
Most people do not choose to live in alternative family structures, such as lone parent families on a long-term basis.
Most people will live in a nuclear family at some stage of their life (think about the life cycle). The trend towards family diversity is exaggerated.
Rapoport
Rhona and Robert Rapoport – were some of the first sociologists to argue family diversity was a growing trend in Britain. They give 5 types of family diversity.
Organisational – differences in ways family roles are organised e.g. one wage earner, dual earner family
Social class – differences in family structure and child rearing practices.
Cultural – different cultural, religious ethnic family structures e.g. Asian families more likely to be extended
Life stage diversity – family structures differ according to your stage in the life cycle e.g. cohabiting, nuclear, retired single person
Generational – over time attitudes and norms around family relationships and structure change
Stacey: The divorce-extended family
In postmodern society there is greater freedom and choice for women to shape and change their family lives.
In her research in California, Stacey found, women had created new family type which she called the ‘divorce-extended family’ – where ex-wives befriended ex-husbands’ new partners for example.
Also, she argues there is now greater acceptance of gay couple headed families who create family forms and relationships which suit them and can be more egalitarian in sharing housework/ childcare for instance.
Giddens: Choice and equality
The Pure relationship
Relationships are based on individual choice and happiness not social norms, laws, religion.
The relationship survives so long as both couples feel in love, happy, attracted, not out of a sense of duty.
It is less stable and more likely to breakdown.
Same-sex relationships are not so influenced by tradition as heterosexual ones. Create unique family structures which meet their needs. Eg. Weeks – friendship networks were seen as ‘family’
Beck: ‘risk society’ and the negotiated family
Ulrich Beck (1992) is a Postmodernist who argues we live in a ‘risk society’ where tradition has lost its influence and people have more choice.
In the past roles were fixed eg. traditional roles for husbands and wives, marriage for life
Greater gender equality and individualism has changed this
‘The negotiated family’ is the norm – we negotiate and create our own roles. The benefit is there is more freedom but the drawback we’re less stable.
Beck: zombie family
In today’s uncertain society people turn to the family to find hope and security but the reality is that the family is itself an unstable structure, more likely to break up than ever before.
The family is a zombie category! It appears alive but is dead.
Personal life perspective: Smart
Criticise individualisation thesis
Develop their own ‘connectedness thesis.’ We are fundamentally social beings and are always connected.
Finch and Mason and other ‘extended families’ studies show extended kin are important and we are not simply free to live whichever lives we want – we exist in a network of obligations and connections to family.
After divorce relationships do not necessarily ‘just end,’ we remain linked through our children.
Class and gender norms still have a big impact eg. women keeping children after divorce. Women generally earn less than men and may feel trapped in unhappy relationships for economic reasons.
Power structures are still important in determining people’s choices about family.
