Families & Households Flashcards
1
Q
How does Pilcher describe modern, western childhood?
A
The ‘Golden age’ of childhood.
2
Q
What is the main feature of Pilcher’s ‘Golden age of childhood’?
A
Separateness - childhood is a clear and distinct life stage, characterised as innocent and happy, with an exclusion from paid work and different dress.
3
Q
What quote demonstrates Wagg’s disagreement with Pilcher?
A
“Childhood is socially constructed. It is, in other words, what members of
particular societies, at particular times and in particular places, say it is. There is no singular universal childhood, experienced by all. So, childhood isn’t ‘natural’ and should be distinguished from mere biological immaturity”
4
Q
What evidence was found by these sociologists to support the idea that childhood is a social construction, as they take responsibility at a younger age?
1) Punch (2001)
2) Holmes (1974)
A
Punch (2001) found rural Bolivia that children worked from the age of 5
Holmes (1974)for not letting a child do something found in a Samoan village being
too young was never a reason
5
Q
Other than taking responsibility at a younger age, how else did Benedict argue that children in non-industrial societies are treated differently?
A
- Less value is placed on children showing obedience to adults.
- Children’s sexual behaviour is often viewed differently.
6
Q
How do sociologists argue that childhood is becoming ‘globalised’?
A
International humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world western norms of what childhood should be. For example campaigns against child labour, or concerns about street children.
7
Q
What three stages of childhood did Aries identify throughout history, in his comparison of art across time?
A
Middle Ages 10th – 13th Century
- The idea of childhood did not exist - no separation between them and adults socially or legally, with children working from an early age.
The Cult of Childhood 13th Century onwards
- This is when the modern view of childhood starts to emerge. Schools started to specialise in education just for the young, reflecting the influence for the church where children were seen as the ‘creatures of god’. Additionally there is a growing distinction between children’s and adults clothing, and handbooks on childrearing start to emerge
The Century of the Child 20th Century
- We are now in a world that is obsessed with childhood and Aries calls this ‘the century of the child’.
8
Q
Which sociologist criticises Aries for saying childhood did not exist in the middle
ages, arguing instead that the notion of childhood was ‘different’.
A
Pollock
9
Q
What reasons can be given for the changing position of children in society over time?
A
Laws restricting child labour and excluding children form paid work
The introduction of
compulsory schooling 1880
The growth of the idea of children’s rights
Declining family size and lower infant mortality rates
Children’s development became a subject of medical knowledge
Laws and policies that apply specifically to children
10
Q
What is industrialisation, and how has it lead to the position of children in society changing?
A
Industrialisation is the shift from agriculture to factory production and has brought about many of those changes as modern industry needs an educated workforce and so compulsory schooling is needed.
11
Q
What quote demonstrates DeMause’s ‘march of progress’ view?
A
“The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare, and the more likely children are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terrorised and sexually abused”
12
Q
Which two sociologists other than DeMause hold a ‘march of progress’ view on childhood?
A
Aries and Shorter
13
Q
Who argues that childhood has become ‘toxic’ and what points do they make to support this?
A
Palmer (2010):
* Junk food
* Computer games and social media – the ‘electronic village’
* Intensive marketing to children
* Long working hours of parents
* Growing emphasis on testing in education
14
Q
Which perspectives would argue that childhood is based on conflict/ inequality?
A
Marxists and Feminists
15
Q
What evidence is there for children being treated differently based on ethnicity?
A
Brannen (1994) – Asian parents were more likely than other parents to be strict toward daughters
Bhatti (1999) – found izzat (family honour) could be a restriction on the behaviour of girls
16
Q
What evidence is there for children being treated differently based on gender?
A
Hillman (1993) – boys are more likely to be allowed to cross or cycle on roads, use buses, and go out after dark
Bonke (1999) - Girls do more domestic labour especially in lone parent families – 5x more than boys
17
Q
What evidence is there for children being treated differently based on class?
A
Poor mothers are more likely to have low birth-weight babies – this is linked to delayed physical and intellectual development.
Working class children are more likely to suffer from hyperactivity disorders and conduct disorders.
Children born into poor families are far more likely to die in infancy, suffer long standing illness, be shorter in height, fall behind at school and be placed on child protection register.
18
Q
What 5 forms of adult control do child liberationists think children need to be freed from?
A
Neglect and abuse
Control over children’s space
Control over children’s time
Control over children’s bodies
Controlover children’s access to resources
19
Q
Who calls the inequalities between adults and children ‘age patriarchy’?
A
Gittins (1998)
20
Q
What two strategies did Hockey & James (1993) find that children use to try to resist their status of ‘child’?
A
- Acting up
- Acting down
21
Q
What do opponents of child liberationism argue?
A
Critics of the child liberationist view say that some adult control is needed over
children and it is justified as children cannot make rational decisions.
They also say that whilst a child does remain under adult supervision they are not as powerless as the liberationists claim, e.g. acts such as Children Act and UN convention on the Rights of the Child establishes that children have the legal right to be protected and consulted
22
Q
What did Postman (1994) argue about childhood?
A
that it is disappearing at a ‘dazzling’ rate. He says the boundary between childhood and adulthood is becoming increasingly blurred.
23
Q
How does Opie (1993) criticise Postman (1994)?
A
They argue that unsupervised childhood games, songs and rhymes still exist.
24
Q
How does Jenks (2005) criticise Postman (1994)?
A
Jenks argues childhood is now undergoing a further change as we move from modernity to postmodernity. In modernity adults’ relationships were more stable but in postmodernity relationships are less stable e.g. divorce is more likely to occur.
25
Wich sociologists support the 'Child’s Point of View' perspective on understanding childhood?
Smart (2011)
Mason & Tipper (2008)
Smart et al’s (2001)
26
What happened to the number of divorces between 1961 and 1969 (and again in 1972).
They doubled
27
What percent of all marriages now end in divorce
40%
28
How many petitions for divorce now come from women?
63%, up from 37% in 1946.
29
What 7 explanations can you give for the increase in divorce rates?
-Changes in the law
-Declining stigma and changing attitudes
-Secularisation
-Rising expectations of marriage
-Women’s increased financial independence
-Feminist explanations
-Modernity and individualisation
30
What is the perspective of the new right on divorce?
They see the high divorce rate as undesirable because it undermines marriage and the traditional nuclear family which they see as ideal in society.
In their view a high divorce rate creates an underclass of welfare dependent lone
parents who are a burden to the state and who produce deviant boys with no male role
model
31
What is the perspective of feminists on divorce?
welcome the high divorce rate as in their eyes it is showing that women
are breaking free from patriarchal oppression of the nuclear family.
32
What is the perspective of postmodernists on divorce?
see high divorce
rates as showing individuals now have more freedom to end a relationship that no
longer meets their needs. They see divorce as a major source of greater family
diversity.
33
What is the perspective of interactionists on divorce?
aim to look at what divorce means to individuals. Morgan argues
we cannot generalise about the meaning of divorce as it’s different for everyone.
Mitchell & Goody give the example of two people that they interviewed one person
said that the day her dad left was the best day of her life, where as another said she
had never recovered from her dad leaving.
34
What is the perspective of functionalists on divorce?
argue that a high divorce rate is not a threat to the institute of
marriage as the high rate of re-marriage shows us that people are still committed to the
idea of marriage. Instead it shows us that people simply have a higher expectation of
marriage today
35
What is the personal life perspective view of divorce?
says that divorce can cause problems like
financial difficulty and lack of contact with children. However Smart (2011) argues
divorce has become normalised and it doesn’t mean that family life is disintegrating
instead it is adapting. Rather than seeing divorce as a social problem it should be
viewed as just another transition in the life course
36
Marriage rates are at their lowest since when?
1838
37
In 2019, what percentage of all marriages were re-marriages
14.7%
38
What is the average age for men and women to get married
32 for women, 34 for men
39
What 5 reasons can you list for the decline in marriages?
1. Changing attitudes to marriage
2. Secularisation
3. Decline in stigma
4. Changing position of women
5. Fear of divorce
40
What could be causing the increase in re-marriages?
The increase in divorces
41
Which was the fastest growing family type in 2013?
cohabiting couples
42
How many cohabiting, heterosexual couples are there in the UK (as of 2021)?
about 3.6 million
43
How many cohabiting, homosexual couples are there in the UK?
about 69,000
44
What reasons can you give for the increase in cohabiting couples?
- Decline in stigma attached to sex before marriage
- Young people are more accepting of cohabitation
- Increased career opportunities for women: means they have less need for the financial security of marriage.
- Secularisation: young people with no religion are more likely to cohabit than those with a religion
45
What did Coast (2006) find out about cohabiting couples?
75% of cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other.
46
What does Bejin (1993) argue about cohabiting couples?
it is a conscious attempt to create a more equal relationship than marriage.
47
What percentage of Gen Z, and what percent of 'Baby Boomers' identify as straight? (according to Stonewall (2022))
Gen Z - 71%
Boomers - 91%
48
What issue arises when trying to compare rates of homosexual couples with those in the past?
stigma and illegality meant that these relationships were often hidden, so the true number is difficult to determine
49
What evidence is there to suggest a change in societal attitudes towards same sex relationships?
* Male homosexuality was decriminalised in 1967 for consenting adults over 21
* More recently the age of consent has been equalised with heterosexuals
* Opinion polls show more tolerance of homosexuality
* Social policy now treats all couples more equally
* 2002 Right to Adopt
* 2004 Civil Right Partnership Act gave same-sex couples similar legal rights to married
couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property
* 2014 same sex couples have been able to marry
50
What does Weeks (1999) say about same sex relationships?
Weeks (1999) argues same sex relationships are starting to resemble heterosexual
relationships – given their increased social acceptance.
He argues same sex couples create their relationships based on ‘friendship as kinship’
where friendships become similar to kinships - these he describes as ‘chosen families’ as
they offer the same security as heterosexual families.
51
What do Allan and Crow argue about same sex relationships?
Allan & Crow argue that the absence of legal frameworks such as civil partnerships and
relationships up until recently means that same sex partners have had to negotiate their
commitment and responsibilities more than married couples. This may have made same sex
relationships both more flexible and less stable than heterosexual ones
52
In 2022, what percentage of households contained only one person?
13%
53
What percentage of one-person households are aged over 65?
51%
54
Which demographic are most likely to live alone?
Women over 75 (However, the number of men living alone has grown by more than the number of women living alone in the past decade (likely due to men’s increasing lifespan))
55
What reasons can you give for the change in statistics for one-person households?
Increase in separation and divorce.
Following a divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother.
The trend toward marrying later means people are remaining single for longer – the people who are single has risen by half since 1971.
People are opting for ‘creative singlehood’ – the deliberate choice to live alone
56
What does it mean if a couple is LAT
'Living apart together' this is a couple who are in a significant relationship, but do not live together.
57
Duncan and Phillips (2013) found that how many adults are in a LAT relationship?
1 in 10
58
How many of the people classed as 'single' in official statistics are in a LAT?
about half
59
What percentage of people reported that they see LAT as the 'ideal relationship'?
20%
60
In 2021, what percentage of babies were born outside of marriage? What is significant about this statistic?
51% - this is the first year that more babies were born outside of marriage than within.
61
What is the average age for a woman to have a child? What WAS the average age in 1974?
31, 26 in 1974
62
What is the average number of children per woman?
2.27 (in 2021)
63
The later age that women are having children, decrease in family size and increase in those remaining childless are all arguably consequences of what?
Changing position of women.
64
What percent of families in the UK are lone parent families?
15%
65
What percent of lone parent families are headed by lone mothers?
84%
66
A child is how many times more likely to be in poverty than a child living with two parents?
2 times more likely.
67
What reasons are there for an increase in lone-parent households?
Increase in divorce and separation.
Decline in stigma.
68
What reasons are there for lone-parent households being mostly female headed?
* The belief that women are by nature suited to an ‘expressive’/ nurturing role.
* Fathers not seeking custody as often as mothers.
* Men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for a child.
69
What did Renvoize (1985) find that supports the idea of lone parent families being single by choice?
Renvoize (1985) found that professional women were able to support their child without the father’s involvement.
70
What did Cashmore (1985) find as a reason for women choosing to leave their partner?
Experiencing abuse.
71
Who sees lone parent families as problematic for society, as they often rely on welfare and are generally female headed, producing (in their opinion) delinquent boys who lack a male role model.
Charles Murray (1984)
72
What phenomenon does Charles Murray call 'perverse incentive'
negative behaviour is rewarded and positive behaviour is sanctioned e.g. non- workers get benefits whereas workers are taxed.
73
How do critics respond to Charles Murray's view on lone parent households?
Critics argue that welfare benefits are far from generous and lone parent families are instead more likely to live in poverty due to:
- Lack of adequate childcare meaning lone parents often cannot work
-Most lone parents being women (who typically earn less than men)
-Failure of fathers to pay maintenance, especially if they have formed a second family they have to support.
74
Step families (or 'reconstituted families') account for what percent of families with children in Britain?
10%
75
What did Ferri and Smith (1998) find out about step families?
Ferri & Smith (1998) found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families, and stepparent involvement in childcare is often positive – they are however at greater risk of poverty.
76
What did Allan and Crow (2001) find out about step families?
Allan & Crow (2001) found that stepfamilies often face problems of divided loyalty with the non- resident parent where tension can occur
77
What reasons are there for the statistics surrounding step families (or 'reconstituted families')
* Increase in divorce and separation
* More children are from the woman’s side because children are more likely to stay with
the mother
* Greater risk of poverty because the stepfather may also be supporting other children
* Tensions faced may be due to lack of social norms about how individuals should behave
78
What percentage of black African and black carribean families are lone-parent households?
24%
79
What percentage of asian families are lone-parent households?
9%
80
What reasons are there for the statistics regarding black African and black carribean lone parent families?
During slavery couples were sold separately, children stayed with the mother – it is argued that this established a pattern.
High rates of male unemployment and discrimination have meant that black men are less able
to provide for their family which leads to conflict and breakdown.
Mirza (1997) argues that he high rate of lone parent female headed families is
not a result of disorganisation but it reflects the independence that is placed on black women.
Reynolds (2010) says the statistics are misleading as quite often what appear to be lone parent families are in fact stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships (LATs).
81
What family type is more common among Bangladeshi, Pakistani and Indian households?
Extended family units (three generations living under one roof).
82
In pre-industrial society, which family type was the most dominant in the UK? What has this been replaced by?
Extended family (replaced by the nuclear family).
83
What did Willmott argue about the extended family type in the UK?
Willmott (1988) argues it continues to exist but has now become a ‘dispersed extended family’ where families may not live under one roof yet remain in frequent contact.
84
What benefits are there to Willmott's 'dispersed extended family'?
* In middle class families there was more financial help from father to son
* In working-class families they had more contact and there was more domestic help
from mothers to daughters.
85
What is a 'beanpole family'?
A particular type of extended family which Brannen (2003) describes as ‘long and thin’.
It is extended vertically – (up and down) through three or more generations: grandparents, parents and children.
But it is not extended horizontally (sideways): it doesn’t contain aunts, uncles, cousins etc.
86
What reasons are there for an increase in Beanpole families?
Increased life expectancy – means more surviving grandparents and great-grandparents.
Smaller family sizes – mean people have fewer siblings and thus fewer horizontal ties.
87
Finch & Mason (1993) found what percent of people had given or received financial help for a sick relative?
Over 90%
88
Define a 'modernist' perspective
They see modern society as having clear-cut, fixed and predictable structure.
They believe the best family type is the nuclear family as it slots into this structure and helps to maintain and perform certain functions. (Functionalism and the New Right)
89
What family type does Parsons view as providing the best ‘functional fit’ for modern society
The nuclear family.
90
What 2 roles did Parsons identify as representing societies needs within the nuclear family?
EXPRESSIVE - the wife takes care of domesticity, emotions and raises the children.
INSTRUMENTAL – the husband is the breadwinner and provides economic
capital and provides for the family
91
What 2 essential functions does Parsons argue the nuclear family perform?
1. Primary socialisation of children - done more effectively with clear roles for the husband
and wife.
2. Stabilisation of adult personalities – whereby clear and definite roles are given to men and women, and this keeps society functioning effectively and stops both the
husband and wife from feeling ‘anomiac’ (lost)
92
What family type do the new right argue is 'natural' and best for society?
Traditional nuclear family.
93
Why do the new right argue the nuclear family is 'natural'?
They believe there are fundamentally biologically differences between men and women.
94
What criticisms are there from the new right regarding lone parent families?
* Lone mothers cannot properly discipline their children
* Lone-parent families leave boys without an adult male role model – resulting in educational failure, delinquency and social instability
* Such families are also welfare dependent and as such a burden on the tax payer and welfare state.
95
What did Benson (2006) find regarding cohabiting couples?
Benson (2006) found that there was a higher rate of family breakdown, during a baby’s first three years, in cohabiting couples – 20%. Whereas in married couples it stood at 6%
96
How does Oakley criticise the view of the 'new right'?
Feminist Oakley (1997) challenges the idea that roles are biological – instead she looks at cross cultural studies that show a variation of roles men and women play. She says the New Right view is a negative reaction against feminism.
97
Does Chester (1985) view the diversification of family types as negative?
No, instead he argues that the only shift has been from a conventional (nuclear) to a ‘neo- conventional family’.
98
What evidence does Chester provide to suggest that families still aspire to be in a 'nuclear' family?
* Most people live in a household headed by a married couple.
* Most adults marry and have children. Most children are reared by their two natural parents.
* Most marriages continue until death. Divorce has increased but most divorcees remarry.
* Cohabitation has increased but for most couples it is a temporary phase before marrying or re-marrying. Most couples get married if they have children.
* Although births outside of marriage have increased most are jointly registered – this indicates that parents are committed to bringing up children together.
99
What 5 types of family diversity are identified by the Rapoports?
- Organisational diversity
- Cultural diversity
- Social class diversity
- Life stage diversity
-Generational diversity
100
Do modernists take a 'bottom up' or a 'top down' approach to society and the family?
Top down
101
Which sociologist argues that we live in a 'chaotic, fragmented postmodern era'?
Cheal (1993)
102
What is one advantage and one disadvantage of an increase in diversity in family types?
Many to choose from, but as a guide:
+ Greater individual choice and freedom to plot their own life course.
- Greater risk of instability.
103
What demographic does Stacey (1998) argue greater freedom and choice has benefited the most?
Women
104
What is 'life course analysis' (Hareven 1978)
Life course analysis is a method of research using in-depth unstructured interviews to understand and explore the meanings individual family members give to their relationships and the choices they make at various points in their lives e.g. choosing to have a baby or coming out as gay.
105
What is the individualisation thesis?
This theory by Beck and Giddens argues that traditional social structures such as class, gender and family have lost their influence over us.
106
What does Giddens describe as the 'pure relationship'
Modern relationships which are not born out of external pressures such as norms and laws, but instead exists to satisfy each partners needs, staying together out of happiness rather than duty.
107
What does Giddens believe has caused the rise of the 'pure relationship''
- Contraception allowing sex and intimacy to become the main reason for a relationships existence (rather than child rearing)
- Women gaining independence from men.
108
What does Beck mean by a 'risk society'?
One where people are more aware of risks in a relationship, and consider those rather than tradition when entering into a relationship.
109
Which 2 changes does Beck identify as having undermined the traditional family?
1. Greater gender equality – challenged male domination. Women now expect equality at both home and work.
2. Greater individualism – peoples actions are now influenced by their own self- interests instead of a sense of duty.
110
Who coined the term 'negotiated family' and what does it mean?
according to Beck – the ‘negotiated family’ do not conform to traditional norms, but vary based on the wishes and expectations of their members, making them less stable.
111
Why do sociologists who take a 'personal life perspective' disagree with Beck and Giddens
1. Argue they exaggerate how much choice people have.
2. Argue they see people as 'disembedded' or 'free-floating', ignoring that choices and decisions are made in a social context.
3. Argue they ignore the structural factors such as class inequality and patriarchal gender norms in limiting relationship choice.
112
What is the name of the thesis developed by Smart (a personal live perspectivist)
The connectedness thesis.
113
What does the connectedness thesis argue?
Instead of seeing individuals as disembedded with limitless choices Smart argues that we are social beings whose choices are made ‘within a web of connectedness’. We live within networks of existing relationships that strongly influence our decisions and range of options, with a particular focus on the roles of class and gender on our choices.
114
What was the 'one-child policy' in China?
Women required to seek permission before getting pregnant.
If couples comply they would get extra benefits such as free healthcare, higher tax allowance and the child gets priority in education and housing.
115
What policies were introduced in communist Russia to drive up the birth rate?
* It restricted contraception and abortion.
* Set up infertility treatment centres
* Made divorce more difficult
* Lowered the legal age of marriage to 15
* Made unmarried and childless couples pay more tax
116
What policies in Nazi Germany influenced the structure of the family?
It encouraged the ‘racially pure’ to breed a ‘master race’, kept women out of the workforce to better perform their biological role
On the other hand the state compulsory sterilised disabled people, many of which were later sent to concentration camps.
117
Are functionalists in favour of or against government intervention in the family (creation of policies regarding family life)
In favour, they see the state as acting on behalf of its members best interests.
118
How does Donzelot view the creation of government policy regarding the family?
He sees policies as creating conflict in society and helps the state exert power and control over families.
119
Which policies from the government do the new right oppose and why?
The policies they oppose are:
* Laws making divorce easier – this undermines the idea that marriage is a lifelong commitment
* Introduction of civil partnerships and same sex marriage sends out the message that the state no longer sees heterosexual marriage as superior
* Tax laws discriminate conventional families with a sole (usually male) breadwinner. They cannot transfer the non-working partner’s tax allowance so they tend to pay more tax than dual earners.
* Increases rights for cohab couples e.g. adoption rights, pension rights make cohab and marriage similar which sends out the message that the state do not see marriage as special
They oppose these as they argue they undermine the nuclear family.
120
How do feminists criticise the new right view?
They argue it is an attempt to return to the traditional patriarchal nuclear family that subordinates women and confines them to a domestic role.
121
How do marxists criticise the new right view?
They argue that cutting benefits would simply take poor families and rive them even further into poverty. Take them from relative poverty to absolute poverty.
122
What policies were introduced under Margaret Thatcher's government?
- Banned the promotion of homosexuality by local authorities, including ban on teaching it was acceptable
- Defined divorce as a social problem and emphasised the importance of continued support for children by both parents – set up Child Support Agency
- Policies that made divorce easier and gave children born outside of marriage the same rights as those born to married parents.
123
Which family type did the new labour government between 1997 and 2010 favour?
dual-earner, neo-conventional family types
124
Which policies were introduced by the new labour government between 1997 and 2010?
* Longer maternity leave for both parents and the right to seek unpaid leave for family
reasons.
* Woking Family Tax Credits, allow parents to claim some tax relief on childcare costs.
* The New Deal, helping lone parents to return to work
125
Which policies do feminists say help to maintain the patriarchal nuclear family?
* Tax and benefits policies – assume husbands are the main wage-earners and that wives are their financial dependents - this can make it impossible for wives to claim social security in their own right and this reinforced dependence on their husband
* Childcare – whilst there is some government funding for childcare this is not enough to permit parents to work full time unless they can afford the costs. Also policies
governing school holidays and timetables make it difficult to work full time. This means women are restricted from working and are dependent on their partners.
* Care for sick and elderly – policies often assume the family will provide this care. In general this is usually middle aged women who are expected to do the caring – this
prevents full time work and further dependence on partners.
126
What 2 types of policy are identified by Drew?
1. Familistic gender regimes–policies are based around male breadwinner and female homemaker.
2. Individualistic gender regimes–policies based on the belief that husbands and wives should be treated the same.
127
Functionalists believe society is based on what kind of consensus?
Value consensus
128
Define the 'organic analogy'
Functionalists see society as a body made up of different interconnected organs – these organs represent the different institutions within society, in this case the family.
129
What 4 essential functions did Murdock (1949) identify as the family performing for society?
- Stable satisfaction of the sex drive
- Reproduction of the next generation
- Socialisation of the young
- Meeting its members economic needs.
130
How does Murdock respond to critiques that point out that the 4 essential functions identified CAN be performed by other institutions (eg. schools)
Responds that the nuclear family is best to do it.
131
What is Parsons (1955) 'functional fit' theory
This theory argues that the family performs a ‘functional fit’ to the needs of society, that the functions a family performs will depend on the society in which it is found.
132
How does the functional fit theory account for the shift from the extended family to the nuclear family in Britain?
Argues that when Britain began to industrialise in the 18th century, the emerging industrial society had different needs which the extended family couldn’t meet, such as a geographically mobile workforce and a socially mobile workforce.
133
How did Laslett argue against Parsons view?
Laslett argues that in pre-industrial society, late childbearing age and short life expectancy meant that grandparents were unlikely to be alive after the birth of their grandchildren, making the family more nuclear.
134
What two functions does Parsons argue the modern nuclear family performs
1. The primary socialisation of children.
2. The stabilisation of adult personalities.
135
What three functions do marxist argue the the family has in society?
1. Inheritance of property
2. Ideological function
3. A unit of consumption
136
Why do feminists not agree with the marxist view of the family.
They argue that the Marxist perspective ignores the influence of gender inequality.
137
What is the view of liberal feminists regarding the family?
Liberal feminists take a 'march of progress' view, they argue we are moving towards greater gender equality and advocate for equal rights.
138
What is the view of marxist feminists regarding the family?
Marxist feminists argue the main cause of women's oppression in the family is not men but capitalism.
139
In what 3 ways do Marxist feminists argue women's oppression serves capitalism?
1. Women reproduce the labour force.
2. Women absorb anger.
3. Women are a reserve army of cheap labour.
140
What is the view of radical feminists regarding the family?
They strongly believe that all societies have been founded on patriarchy. They believe:
* Men are the source of women’s oppression and exploitation
* The family and marriage are the key institutions in patriarchal society.
They argue the only way for
women to be free is through separatism – where women live independently of men.
141
What is the view of difference feminists regarding the family?
Difference feminists argue that we cannot generalise about women’s experiences
They argue that lesbian and heterosexual women, white and black women, middle class and working class women all have very different experiences of the family and society.
142
How does the 'personal life perspective' criticise the other perspectives looked at in this topic?
The personal life perspective argues that the other perspectives all suffer from two weaknesses:
1. They tend to assume that the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type, ignoring the increased diversity of families.
2. They are all structural theories– they assume we are all passive puppets manipulated by the structures of society.
143
What personal relationships are looked at by personal life perspectivists, which might not normally be considered 'family'?
* Relationships with friends – who may be like a “sister” or “brother”
* Fictive kin – close friends who are treated as relatives e.g. mum’s best friend called
“auntie”
* Gay and lesbian “chosen families” – made up of a supportive network of close
friends, ex-partners and others who are not related by blood or marriage.
* Relationships with dead relatives – who live on in people’s memories and continue to
shape identities
* Even relationships with pets – e.g. Tipper (2011) found in her study of children’s
views of family relationships, the children frequently saw their pets as “part of the family”
144
What is the main criticism faced by those who subscribe to the personal life perspective?
It is too broad of a view.
145
What two types of 'conjugal roles' are identified by Bott (1957)
SEGREGATED CONJUGAL ROLES: where the couple have separate roles; a male breadwinner & female homemaker.
JOINT CONJUGAL ROLES: where the couple share tasks such as housework and childcare and also spends their leisure time together.
146
Which of the two conjugal roles identified by Bott were found to be most popular in 1950's London by Young and Wilmott? How did they find that had changed by the 70's
Segregated in the 50's, changing to joint in the 70's
147
Oakley found that what percent of husbands had a high level of participation in housework?
15
148
Oakley found that what percent of husbands had a high level of participation in childcare?
25
149
What is the 'dual burden'
This is the argument that since gaining entry into the workforce, women's position in society has become LESS equal, as they are now expected to both work a job, and at home doing domestic labour.
150
Which two different explanations for the unequal division of labour are proposed by Crompton & Lyonette (2008).
* Cultural explanation
* Material explanation
151
What two types of control over family income are identified byPahl & Vogler (1993)?
- The allowance system
-Pooling
152
Who did Hardhill (1997) identify as making most of the important financial decisions in a family?
The patriarch (man)
153
What 3 types of financial decision making were identified by Edgell (1980)
- Very important decisions
-Important decisions
-Less important decisions
154
Define the personal life perspective on money in a family
Supporters of the personal life perspective argue that it is essential always to start from the personal meanings of the actors involved in the situation. They focus on the meanings couples give to who controls money.
155
According to the crime survey (2013), how many people reported being victims of domestic abuse?
2 million (1.2 million women, 800,000 men).
156
How many women experience domestic violence at some point in their life?
1 in 4
157
How many women each week are killed by a current or former partner?
2
158
What did Dobash & Dobash (2007) find as a cause for acts of domestic violence?
The power structure of marriage making men feel they are in power in the relationship/ men who feel their authority is being challenged.
159
What reasons are there for the hidden 'true extent' of domestic violence?
-Victims underreporting out of fear.
-Reluctance from police to get involved in peoples family life.
160
What two types of explanations are offered by sociologists for domestic violence?
1.The Radical Feminist Explanation.
2. The Materialist Explanation
161
How does Elliot (1996) reject the radical feminist view that all men benefit from domestic violence against women?
* Most men are opposed to domestic violence.
* Not all men are domestically violent (in fact most aren’t).
* They also fail to explain why female violence, incl. child abuse by women and violence against men or within lesbian relationships.
162
Which demographics of women are at an increased risk of facing domestic violence?
* Young women
* Those in lowest social classes and those living in deprived areas
* Low incomes
* Living in rented accommodation
* Drug and alcohol users
* Long term illness or disability
163
What do Wilkinson & Pickett (2010) see domestic violence as a result of?
As proponents of the materialist explanation, they see DV as the result of stress on family members caused by social inequality.
164
What does the materialist explanation not account for as an explanation of DV?
Why women are disproportionately the victims.
165
Ansley (1972) argues domestic violence is the product of capitalism, which perspective does she support?
The marxist feminist perspective.
166
Identify the three 'baby booms' in the 20th century.
he first two came after the world wars (1914-18 and 1939-45) and the third in the 1960s after which it fell sharply during the 1970s, rose again in the 1980s before falling again in the 1990s, with a rise and a fall in more recent years.
167
Despite the occasional 'boom' what is happening to the birth rate in the UK over time?
It is declining.
168
What does TFR stand for?
Total fertility rate. This is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
169
What is happening to the total fertility rate in the UK?
The UK’s TFR has risen from 2020 – 2021, most likely do to the COVID lockdown. However it has been trending downwards in the last decade.
* 1964 2.93 children per woman
* 2020 1.58 children per woman
* 2021 1.61 children per woman
170
What reasons are there for the declining birth rate?
1) Changing position of women.
2) Decline in infant mortality rate.
3) Children are now an economic liability.
4) Child centeredness
171
What reasons are there for the increase in the UK's birth rate in the mid 2000's?
Immigration, on average mothers from outside of the UK have a higher fertility rate.
172
what is the 'dependency ratio'?
The dependency ratio is the relationship between the size of the working population and the size of the non-working/ dependent part of the population.
173
What 3 things are mainly effected by changes in birth rate?
Family size and roles in the family.
The dependency ratio.
Public services (the amount necessary)
174
How has the death rate in the UK changed since 1870?
The DR began falling from 1870 but rose slightly during 1930s -40s, but since 1950 it has declined, with the exception of the COVID 19 pandemic creating an anomaly.
175
What social factors likely caused the decline of the death rate from infectious disease?
- improved nutrition
- medical improvements
- less smoking and better diet
- public health measures
- decline of dangerous manual occupations such as mining.
- greater public knowledge about the causes of illness
176
What is the difference in life expectancy from 1900 to 2020
* Males born in 1900 could expect to live until 50 (females 57)
* Males born in 2020 can expect to live for 79 years (83 for females)
177
What reason can be given for a much lower life expectancy for those born in 1900?
High infant mortality rate. Today a new born baby has a better chance of reaching its 65th birthday than a baby born in 1900 had of reaching its 1st birthday.
178
How much earlier are those living in the poorest areas expected to die, compared to those in the richest areas (according to Walker 2011)?
7 years earlier.
179
What is the consequence of increased life expectancy, decline in infant mortality and a decline in fertility in the UK?
An aging population.
180
What was the average age of a person in the UK in:
1971
2021
1971 - 34.1 years
2021 - 40.7 years.
(expected to rise to 42.8 years in 2037)
181
What three major consequences are there of an aging population?
1. Strain on public services
2. Increase in one–person pensioner households
3. The dependency ratio
182
What negative social consequence is there of an aging population?
An increase in ageism - the negative stereotyping and unequal treatment of people based on their age.
183
What does Hunt (2005) argue regarding age and lifestyle?
Argues that age no longer determines who we are or how we live, that we can choose a lifestyle and identity regardless of age.
184
How does Hirsch (2005) argue we should tackle the problems posed by an aging population?
Through social policy, specifically:
-we should pay more from our savings and taxes while we are working and work for longer.
-Old people should be encouraged to 'trade down' their housing in order to free up housing for families.
185
Who argues that age is a 'social construct'?
Hirsch
186
Aside from the natural change (births and deaths) what other factor affects the size and age of population?
Migration
187
What is the difference between Immigration, Emigration and Net migration?
Immigration refers to the movement into a society.
Emigration refers to the movement out.
Net migration the difference between the number of immigrants and the number of emigrants, and is expressed as a net increase or decrease.
188
As of 2021, ethnic minority groups account for what percentage of the population?
18%
189
Define 'push factors' and 'pull factors' regarding emigration.
Push factors – like economic recession and unemployment at home.
Pull factors – such as higher wages or better opportunities abroad
190
Up until the 1980's, was the UK a net IMPORTER or EXPORTER of people?
Exporter.
191
How has increased immigration helped UK society?
- increased diversity.
-lowers the average age, tackling the aging population
- without migration, the UK's population would be shrinking.
192
What factors are causing 'globalisation'?
* Growth of communication systems.
* Global media.
* Creation of global markets.
* The fall of communism in Eastern Europe.
* Expansion of the European Union.
193
What trends can be identified in global migration?
- Acceleration (speeding up)
- Differentiation (diversifying)
- Feminisation (becoming increasingly female)
194
What policies have been introduced as a result of the increased diversity due to multiculturalism?
Assimilation – Encouraging immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs of the host culture to make them ‘like us’.
Multiculturalism – accepts that migrants are diverse and may wish to retain a separate cultural identity. Eriksen distinguishes between two types of diversity:
1) Shallow diversity – such as different foods
2) Deep diversity – such as arranged marriages or veiling women.
195
How does Castles (2000) argue that assimilationist policies are counter-productive?
Argues that they mark out minority groups as culturally backward or ‘other’. Leading to an 'us vs them' mentality which increases tensions.
196
What did Benson (2006) argue about cohabiting couples, as a result of his findings?
Benson argues that marriage offers further stability as it involves a commitment; there are lower rates of divorce among married couples than the rate of breakups within cohabiting couples.
