False Memories

Question 1

what is everyday memory designed to do?

Answer 1

fulfil specific goals

Question 2

what influences the specific goals that memory is designed to fulfil?

Answer 2

past experiences, history and culture; current motives and emotions; intelligence and personality traits; future goals and plans

Question 3

how does memory serve interpersonal communication?

Answer 3

it is shared, exchanged, constructed, revised and elaborated

Question 4

what is episodic memory?

Answer 4

memories for pronely experienced events. context specific (time and place). personal and subjective.

Question 5

describe the recall of episodic memory

Answer 5

generative (instead of calling up stored data this can be modified)

Question 6

what influences episode retrieval?

Answer 6

depth of original processing; cognitive state of the individual (ideally relaxed); context of retrieval/cues available

Question 7

describe a study showing the effect of context on memory retrieval

Answer 7

Godden & Baddeley (1975). divers learn words on the ground or underwater. memory retrieval was improved when this was in the same environment as encoding

Question 8

what is autobiographical memory?

Answer 8

hybrid between semantic and episode memory. facts and contextual memories about our lives.

Question 9

describe a study showing the accuracy of autobiographical memory

Answer 9

Barclay, 1988. asked to keep diaries and to recognise which was the diary entry. high distractor item events derived from other incidents by the same subject. frequent errors in remembering details

Question 10

what did Neisser (1988) say about autobiographical memory?

Answer 10

much of it is error free. reconstructions of past events incorporate info about the meaning of events to the person. self-schemata may mediate.

Question 11

what are flashbulb memories?

Answer 11

type of autobiographical memory. very detailed and vivid. for events which are surprising and consequential.

Question 12

describe Brown and Kulik (1997)’s study on false memories

Answer 12

ps asked what they remembered about major events eg. JFK assassination. 79/80 had clear memories of this. depends on personal relevance - 30/40 African Americans had FMs for assignation of martin luther king, compared to 13/40 white Americans

Question 13

what is meant by ‘Phantom’ flashbulbs?

Answer 13

impact of time on forgetting details of flashbulb memories.

Question 14

describe Neisser & Harsch’s 1992 study on ‘phantom’ flashbulbs

Answer 14

ps did questionnaire. day after challenge space shuttle exploded and 32 months later. accuracy of recall was 2.97/7. confidence in accuracy was 4.17

Question 15

describe the nature of errors seen in McCloskey et al’s 1988 study on ‘phantom’ flashbulbs

Answer 15

45 ps did questionnaire within a week of challenger disaster. 27 did follow up. after 9 months, 4/27 did not remember. 7/27 gave 9 inconsistent responses

Question 16

describe Winningham et al’s 2000 study on the effects of questioning

Answer 16

ps asked into about when they learnt of OJ Simpson’s acquittal, either 5 hours or 1 week after. then again 8 weeks after. consistency of memory high for delayed vs immediate group. indicate effect of consolidation time - reduces memory alteration

Question 17

when does most forgetting occur?

Answer 17

in the first few days after an event. after this memory traces consolidate into a relatively permanent narrative account

Question 18

describe THE SET UP of Talarico and Rubin’s 2003 study on whether flashbulb memories are special

Answer 18

ps tested on their mems of 9/11 the day after the attack. asked their mems of an ordinary event that happened around the same time. re-tested memories after either 1, 6 or 32 weeks.

Question 19

describe the CONSISTENCY RESULTS of Talarico and Rubin’s 2003 study on whether flashbulb memories are special

Answer 19

higher for everyday vs flashbulb memories; both showed evidence of forgetting; no differences between types of memories in rate of forgetting

Question 20

describe the BELIEF OF ACCURACY RESULTS of Talarico and Rubin’s 2003 study on whether flashbulb memories are special

Answer 20

high for both flashbulb and everyday memories, was higher for flashbulb memories, decreased more for everyday memories over time

Question 21

describe the VIVIDNESS RESLULTS of Talarico and Rubin’s 2003 study on whether flashbulb memories are special

Answer 21

higher for flashbulb vs everyday memories; decreased more for everyday memories over time

Question 22

describe Bonhannon et al’s 1988 study on flashbulb memories

Answer 22

ps who re-told challenger shuttle disaster more often had more detailed memory

Question 23

describe Pezdek’s 2003 study on flashbulb memories

Answer 23

73% of respondents say they saw video of first plane hitting world trade centre on 9/11 - however this doesn’t exist

Question 24

what is a false memory?

Answer 24

inaccurate recollections of events that did not occur, or distortions of events ht did occur

Question 25

how do inaccuracies in memories occur?

Answer 25

imagination inflation or demand characteristics

Question 26

describe imagination inflation

Answer 26

strengthening false memories through repeated retrieval

Question 27

describe demand characteristics' effect on memories

Answer 27

we 'create' memories based prompting questions from the examiner

Question 28

describe Loftus and Pickrell's 1995 study on falsely recalled memories

Answer 28

lost in the mall. read short narratives of childhood events (3 true, 1 false - mall). 25% 'remembered' false memory, however they had less detail/fewer words

Question 29

describe Wade et al's 2002 study on falsely recalled memories from picture

Answer 29

ps shown pics of childhood events (3 real, 1 false - balloon ride). 50% created false memory

Question 30

what were the different strategies used in Shaw & Porter's 2015 study on 'did you commit this crime?"?

Answer 30

incontrovertible false evidence; social pressure; suggested retrieval techniques; building rapport

Question 31

describe Loftus & Palmer's 1974 study on language during questioning

Answer 31

ps shown vids of car accidents. then asked q's with different word. changed how they estimate speed, and whether they remember seeing broken glass a week later.

Question 32

describe Loftus et al's 1978 study on the misinformation effect

Answer 32

30 slides of car accident - half say stop, half say yield. forced choice recognition of pairs of slides. 41% given misleading q

Question 33

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 33

info presented later interferes with ability to retain previously encoded info

Question 34

describe SET UP of Baym & Gonsalves' 2010 study on false memories in the brain

Answer 34

photographic vignettes of common activities. later shown sentences describing photos. then surprise item memory recognition test for photographs

Question 35

describe RESULTS of Baym & Gonsalves' 2010 study on false memories in the brain

Answer 35

greater activity in visual processing areas for true > false memories. forgetting in right frontal and bilateral medial temporal lobe

Question 36

describe the representativeness of participants in flashbulb and false memory studies

Answer 36

some ps in Brown & Kulik were 11/12 when JFK was assassinated - did they understand the impact? Loftus - students : driving experience?

Question 37

describe the ecological validity of lab studies?

Answer 37

ethical considerations for false memory studies. is viewing video/slides equivalent to 'real world' situations?

Question 38

describe critique of flashbulb memories (all recollections have a delay)

Answer 38

how do we know how accurate recollect is. ps vary in how much they discuss events. cannot be generated in the lab/not controlled

Question 39

what is eyewitness testimony?

Answer 39

legal term referring to an account given by people relating to a crime they have witnessed

Question 40

describe Bruce et al's 1999 study on face recognition of CCTV images

Answer 40

shown target face from CCTV and asked to match it. when target face was present deleted 65% of time. when not present, another face selected 35% of time. 5 second clip as well did not improve recognition

Question 41

describe Jenkins et al's 2011 study on variability in photos of the same face

Answer 41

20 images of 2 Dutch celebrities. ps asked to sort by identity. English: 7.5 mean identities. Dutch: 2 mean identities

Question 42

describe Simon and Chabris's 2011 study on whether people think eyewitness testimony is reliable

Answer 42

75% of prosecutors think more confident eyewitnesses are more accurate. 37% of Americans believe the testimony of a single confident eyewitness should be enough to convict

Question 43

what is the leading cause of wrongful conviction in the USA?

Answer 43

eyewitness misidentification

Question 44

between 1989 and Jan 2019, DNA evidence has exonerated how many wrongly convicted individuals?

Answer 44

362 - more than 75% convicted based on evidence from mistaken eyewitness identifications

Question 45

what is the 'weapon focus'?

Answer 45

when a gun is present during a crime, witness recall fo offender significantly reduced. can often describe the weapon in more detail than the person holding it - attentional narrowing.

Question 46

what is the effect of expectation on witness description of perpetrator?

Answer 46

described less accurately if they held an object consistent with the opposite gender rather than same gender stereotype (Pickel et al., 2009)

Question 47

describer Clifford and Scott's 1978 study on the effect of anxiety/stress on memories

Answer 47

videos of violent/nonviolent incidents. witness of violent incidents recall less, regardless of whether a weapon was used

Question 48

what are two possible explanations for why witness of violent incidents recall less, regardless of whether a weapon was used

Answer 48

draw the focus of witnesses' attention, reducing processing of peripheral info. increase anxiety and autonomic arousal, reducing memory encoding

Question 49

what is Yerkes-Dodson law?

Answer 49

increased arousal improves performance up to a point, after which performance declines

Question 50

describe Yuille & Cutshall's 1986 study which shows discrepancy with the effect of stress on memories

Answer 50

gun shooting incident. analysed statement to police and research interview 4-5 months after. accuracy 80+% for both, highest for those with highest stress

Question 51

describe Payne et al's 2006 study on the impact of stress on memory

Answer 51

induced into stressed/relaxed state. vowed slides of story (neutral/emotional). stress did not affect recall for emotional memories but decreased recall for neutral memories

Question 52

when retrieving eyewitness memories, recall is increased if the witness...

Answer 52

goes back over the scene to reinstate additional cues (context); is exposed to person's face for long time (increased encoding); gives testimony soon after crime; habitually attends to their surrounding and generally forms vivid mental images (indiv diff); does not see the person's face being altered by a disguise; thinks the person looks dishonest (schemas)

Question 53

what are leading questions?

Answer 53

questions which can provide info after the event that can be stored and affect the original memory

Question 54

when can witness testimony be affected by leading questions?

Answer 54

if the witness believes questioner knows what happened; if witness is unaware they my be misled; missing info relates to peripheral rather can central details of the events; misleading info is not obviously incorrect

Question 55

what is the familiarity effect?

Answer 55

eyewitnesses 3 times more likely to pick a bystander from a line-up than someone not seen before (Ross et al., 1994)

Question 56

what is the effect of age on eyewitnesses?

Answer 56

older adults much more likely to produce false memories after being given misleading info vs younger adults (43% vs 4%, Jacoby et al., 2005)

Question 57

what is the effect of gesturers on eyewitnesses?

Answer 57

ps saw video, then researchers asked them qs about it. if researcher stroked their chin, ps 3 times more likely to remember they had a bird (Gurney et al., 2013)

Question 58

describe the cognitive interview

Answer 58

used by police to try and elicit more accurate recall, based on psychological research into memory.

Question 59

what are the 4 strategies used in the cognitive interview to maximise recall/

Answer 59

mentally reinstating environment and personal context; reporting everything regardless of perceived importance; recounting events in different orders; reporting events from variety of perspectives to reduce bias