Factors Affecting Performance Flashcards
What are the 3 main energy systems?
Alactacid or ATP/PC system
Lactic acid system
Aerobic system
Are all energy systems used simultaneously?
Yes in most situations, but at particular times, certain systems are more dominant. I.e. in a 100m sprint, the ATP/PC system will be more dominant than the aerobic system
What is Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is a source of energy on a molecular level and allows for energy to be converted from chemical to mechanical energy
What is the Alactacid or ATP/PC system?
It utilises the limited amounts of ATP that our body already has (we have enough for one explosive movement lasting 1-2 seconds). Further muscular work relies on creatine phosphate (or phospocreatine PC/CP) to break down into creatine and phosphate, thus releasing energy in the progress. When ATP breaks down, it breaks into ADP and phosphate. Creatine phosphate releases energy to drive the free phosphates into the ADP, so it can become ATP, once reformed the ATP can break down again, and the cycle continues. However, CP is exhausted within 10-12 seconds.
How is energy created?
When an ATP splits apart into ADP and phosphate
What is the source of fuel of the Alactacid or ATP/PC system?
Uses ATP that is immediately available within the muscle cell. When ATP is broken down into ADP and phosphate, the ADP reacts with PC to produce another ATP and C
How efficient is ATP production in the ATP/PC system?
Fast rate of ATP production, yet there is a limited supply of creatine phosphate so need to recover before producing more energy
What is the duration of the ATP/PC system?
Doesn’t last long due to limited fuel source of CP. ATP supplies are exhausted after 2 seconds of hard work and CP supplies are exhausted in 10-15 seconds depending on intensity.
What is the cause of fatigue for the ATP/PC system?
Depletion of fuel (Creatine phosphate). I.e. the inability of a system to continually resynthesise ATP from CP as CP supplies are quickly exhausted
What are the by products of energy distribution in the ATP/PC system?
No by-products other than heat
What is the rate of recovery of the ATP/PC system?
Recovers as creatine in cells connects to free phosphates again and store them as PC to be used when needed. Takes up to 2 mins for complete recovery. Half is restored at the 30 second mark
What are some examples of sports which utilise the ATP/PC system?
60/100m sprint, discus, javelin
What are some key factors to consider when looking at energy systems (i.e. what to talk about for each energy system in an exam)? (8)
Brief Description
Source of fuel
Efficiency of ATP production
Duration of system
Cause of fatigue
By products
Rate of recovery
Examples
Which energy systems are considered anaerobic, and which aerobic
Anaerobic: ATP/PC and lactic acid energy system
Aerobic: the aerobic system
What is continuous training? (I.e. description, time, intensity, purpose)
Refers to a sustained effort of exercise without rest intervals. It needs to persist for no less than 20 mins, and at a moderate intensity (60-80% of max HR). It’s purpose is to make the body more efficient at using oxygen.
What is the lactic acid energy system and why does it exist
Following 10-12 secs of exercise, CP supplies are exhausted, but thre still needs ATP to be produced. Thus the body utilises sugar supplies in the blood as well as sugar storage supplies (glycogen) in a process called glycolysis to create energy. The lack of oxygen (because it is considered anaerobic) results in the partial breakdown of glucose which produces quick but limited ATP production as well as the by-product of lactic acid.
What is glycogen?
Stored sugar
What is lactic acid?
An acid which is produced by the body when glucose is broken down to ATP in the absence of oxygen. It causes the burning feeling that we have when we exercise too hard (the build up of lactic acid in the bloodstream)
Why is there insufficient oxygen in the lactic acid system?
Because it takes a couple of mins for blood to transport oxygen from lungs to working muscles resulting in a temporary lack of oxygen throughout the muscles
What is the source of fuel for the lactic acid system?
Carbohydrates are the only fuel source, and exists in 2 forms: glucose in blood and glycogen. Relies on anaerobic glycolysis for production of ATP
What is the efficiency of ATP production for the lactic acid system
Produces ATP at a fast rate and can produce a lot of ATP. Around 2 ATP for each glucose molecule broken down. However, this isn’t too good, as it has a max break down of 38 ATP molecules, indicating only 5% of a breakdown
What is the duration of the lactic acid system
30 secs - 3 mins depending on the intensity
What are the by products of the lactic acid system
Lactic acid
What are the causes of fatigue for the lactic acid system
Build up of lactic acid in the muscle. The slow rate of removal of the lactic acid hinders performance. Furthermore, when glucose is broken down, it breaks into lactate (one less hydrogen ion than lactic acid) and hydrogen ions. It is the hydrogen ions which increase the acidity of the muscles which create the fatigue.
What is the rate of recovery for the lactic acid system?
In post exeercise period, lactic acid diffuses from muscles into the bloodstream where it is used as a by product. this process take 30mins - 1hr
What are some examples of the lactic acid system?
200m or 400m run, 50m or 100m swim. Any sport requiring high intensity for longer than 10 seconds
What is the aerobic energy system?
Refers to the energy system that is utilised when there is physical activity lasting more than 3 mins. Oxygen is required to ensure continued muscular contraction. This system utilises glucose, fat and sometimes protein and breaks them down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP. Lactic acid doesn’t form as oxygen is present.
What is the source of fuel for the aerobic energy system?
Can use carbohydrates, fats and even protein as fuel
What is the efficiency of ATP production for the aerobic energy system?
Very efficient at producing ATP. Produces 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
What are the causes of fatigue for the aerobic energy system?
When carb stores deplete, there is a reduction in intensity, since fats need more O2 to produce ATP than carbs, athletes will decrease intensity (thus leading to hitting the wall)
What is the rate of recovery for the aerobic energy system?
Depends on the duration of the use of the energy systeem. If only used for short times, the system recovers quickly as glycogen stores haven’t been depleted. However, if it is exhausted, may need days for recovery. As part of recovery, there has to be the ingestion, digestion of fuels through food, and the process can take 12-48 hrs depending on intensity and duration
soWhat are some examples of the aerobic energy system?
Any sport lasting longer than 3 mins. Includes many team sports such as netball, AFL, Rugby league. Also has individual sports such as the 1500m swimming and marathons.
What are the 4 main types of training?
Aerobic training
Anaerobic training
Flexibility training
Strength training
What is part of aerobic training? (4)
Continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit
What is part of anaerobic training?
Anaerobic interval
What is part of flexibility training? (4)
Static, dynamic, PNF, Ballistic
What is part of strength training? (3)
Isometric, isotonic, isokinetic
On syllabus: Hydraulics, free/fixed weights and elastic
What is the duration of ATP production for the aerobic energy system?
Can produce ATP continuously for over 1hr as long as there are sufficient fuel sources. Muscle glycogen will deplete after around 1hr of work, resulting in an increasing need for O2 as fats become dominant fuel source
What are the two types of continuous training?
Long, slow distance training
High intensity work of moderate duration (typically at race pace and works 50-90% of max HR)
What is fartlek training?
Fartlek involves varying intensities of effort. It refers to a period of intense work followed by easier efforts, and the aim is to improve anaerobic threshold, however it works both aerobic and anaerobic, ultimately depending on what the workout is. Fartlek is essential for many team sports such as rugby, soccer which require short bursts of speeds, changing directions etc.
What is aerobic interval training?
Involves period of effort and periods of rest. For example, athlete performs 400m run before resting for a minute, and then doing it again. The rest period is essential for differentiating aerobic interval and anaerobic interval training. Aerobic interval has very short rest periods (i.e. 20 seconds) as it doesnt allow for full recovery, thereby increasing stress on aerobic system
How can the overload principle be applied to aerobic interval training?
It suggets that changes in work intensity, number of reps, work time and work-rest ratios can lead to slow overloads which contribute to better gains.
What is circuit training? (and when are there the best benefits)
Refers to arranging activities that require an athlete to spend time at a certain activity before another activity. It can be both anaerobic and aerobic.
There are best benefits when the overload principle is applied, all fitness components essential to a particular sports are developed, and when skills at each station concentrate on attributes needed for a particular game.
What is anaerobic training?
Utilises high intensity work with limited recovery to develop systems that function in the absence of oxygen. Typically short in duration, as well as short rest periods
What are the three types of anaerobic training?
Short anaerobic (less than 25sec - ATP/PC system)
Medium anaerobic (25 sec-1 min - targets lactic acid system )
Long anaerobic (1-2 mins - lactic acid system+aerobic)
What is anaerobic interval training, and what is an example?
Refers to sprint training using maximal effort for short distance. An example of this is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
What is HIIT?
Involves repeated bouts of high intensity and complete rest/recovery at lower intensities. Typically rest is no more than double the work period, but work period has to be near maximal intensity. Aim is to place stress on the anaerobic energy systems
What are the benefits of HIIT? (4)
Improves Vo2 max as well as anaerobic system
Burns calories in short times (burns more calories than aerobic exercise)
Not reliant on equipment
Significant fitness gains in short periods of time
What is the purpose of flexibility training?
Muscle length is required for efficient movement and can be achieved through flexibility training.
What are the benefits of flexibility training? (5)
Prevention of injury
Coordination between muscle groups
Muscular relaxation
Decreased soreness and tightness
Increased ROM around joints
What are the four types of flexibility training?
Static
Dynamic
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)
Ballistic
What is static stretching?
It is where a muscle is slowly stretched to a position which is held for around 30 seconds. It is performed slowly, taking muscle to a point where there is a stretch without discomfort. It is safe and extensively used in rehab of injury and warmup and cool down
What is ballistic stretching? Give an example
Involves stretching a muscle to its end point and then over stretching by bouncing. Due to the force of the stretch, it could damage muscle fibres. Should only be used by advanced athletes, and movements need to be rhythmical.
An example is touching toes using a bouncing motion
What is PNF stretching?
Involves lengthening a muscle against resistance provided by an external force. It involves creating a static stretch followed by an isometric contraction against resistance, before following more stretching. Useful in rehab as isometric component strengthens muscle fibres
What is dynamic stretching?
Involves rhythmic movements of the major muscle groups used in the activity. Stretching is generally a slow, gentle repetition of movements which are required in the sport or physical activity. Helps reduce muscle tightness as opposed to lengthening muscle fibres
What is strength training?
The use of resistance to be able to create muscular strength. It is also called resistance training
What is strength training divided into?
Isotonic programs: Participants raise/lower or pull/push free weights to contract/lengthen muscle fibres
Isometric programs: participants develop strength by applying resistance and using exercises in which muscle length doesn’t change (i.e. plank)
What are some examples of resistance for strength training? (6)
Body weigght
Barbells/dumb bells
Weight machines
Hydraulic resistance machines
Elastic bands
Water
What are the 5 types of muscular contractions?
Isotonic
Concentric
Eccentric
Isometric
Isokinetic
What is are isotonic contractions?
Causes muscle length to change as tension is developed in the muscle
What are concentric contractions?
Muscle shortens, causing movement at joint
What are eccentric contractions?
Muscle lengthens while under tension, often occurring with help of gravity
What are isometric contractions?
Muscle fibres are activated and develop force, but muscle length doesn’t change i.e. a dead hang
What are isokinetic contractions?
Occurs when tension is developed in a muscle throughout its entire range of motion. As muscle shortens, resistance is increased to maintain constant tension at all joint angles. I.e. doing swimming such as breaststroke as water applies resistance against the movementt
What are some principles that needs to be taken into consideration when trying to develop a strength program? (8)
Target specific muscle groups
Progressive overload
Volume
Variety
Rest
Repetition speed
Repetition numbers
Recovery
What are the six principles of training that we study?
Progressive overload
Specificity
Reversibility
Variety
Training thresholds
Warm up and cool down
How do hydraulic exercise equipment help strength training
This equipment increase their resistance as the exercise movement speed increases i.e. the faster you move the greater the resistance created. This is a specific quality that specifically helps to produce power, making this training method useful for sports such as: power lifting, rugby, basketball etc
They automatically adjust to muscle fatigue so that muscles are 100% worked at all time even if its giving less force.
How do elastics help strength training?
They provide a force against which the muscle has to work against, and offers progressive resistance. Good form of resistance for muscles and uses whole muscle group which might not be the case with free weights
It has a lower amount of force on joints –> reduced risks of injury
Ideal for rehab and people beginning a strength training program
E.g. Lateral banded walks improve glutes, target outer thighs, hip and knee stability and increases ROM
What is progressive overload?
This principle implies that gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is greater than normal and it is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur. This prevents the athlete from ‘plateauing’ in their training.
This is because training causes physiological changes which allow body to work at higher intensities (due to adaptations that have occurred in response to training stress). AS body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it, and eventually gets used to it and will no longer successfully stress the system
What are examples of the use of the principle of progressive overload in aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: Application of overload principle is seen in the heart’s ability to pump more blood to the working muscles and the ability of the working muscles to take up more oxygen. Because of this physiological adaptation, the body can then take on higher intensities, thus the workout should be at a higher intensity To apply it, the time between reps may be decreased or the distances required to be run might increase
Strength: application of the overload principle results in muscle hypertrophy and increased strength. To apply, it the time between reps may be decreased
What is the principle of specificity?
It implies that the effects of a training program are specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted. It simply means that it needs to make sure that the workout has to target the muscles which are required for the sport.
Specificity applies to the muscle group trained, the speed of training, the intensity of training, the movements of training and the energy systems utilised.
Specificity is that physiological adaptations only occur in response to the stress placed on the body and only to the sections that experience this stress.
What is metabolic specificity and why is it important?
Refers to identifying energy systems or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures
What are some examples of the application of the specificity principle in aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic training: Athlete training for a marathon must target the aerobic system in training. Most activity ensures that the third energy pathway is used for 95% of the time, and the athlete should ensure that the rest and work required stimulate the slow twitch muscle fibres (i.e. make sure not to target the anaerobic system)
Strength training: if increased leg power is required to improve a person’s ability to sprint, the training program must correctly address the speed and number of repetitions, load and time between sets correctly. For example, if the load is too high and the repetitions too low, the program causes bigger improvements to muscle bulk than muscle power.
What is the principle of reversibility?
Simply states that the effects of training programs are reversible, and that when training stops, their adaptations may start to cease. Often referred to as detraining, it applies to all the various training programs such as aerobic, strength and flexibility
In general, if big gains have been made during training, greater losses will follow when training stops because there is more to lose. You must be actively participating in the training program to maintain the training benefits.
The more adaptations that have happened the more you have to lose. So elite level athletes tend to lose more than a recreational athlete
What are some examples of the application of the principle of reversibility on aerobic and strength training?
For aerobic training the effects of reversibility can be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training each week.
For resistance training reversibility can normally be seen in 2 weeks. The effects can be avoided by maintaining 1 session a week at the same intensity as previous training.
What are some examples of the application of the principle of reversibility on aerobic and strength training?
For aerobic training the effects of reversibility can be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training each week.
For resistance training reversibility can normally be seen in 2 weeks. The effects can be avoided by maintaining 1 session a week at the same intensity as previous training.
What is the Principle of variety?
The principle of variety is ensuring training sessions use multiple training types and methods, as well as exercises within these methods. Variety is needed in training, not only to prevent boredom, but also to ensure complete and full development of fitness.
What are some examples of utilising the principle of variety for aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: variety would include changes to the training method, between fartlek, circuit, continuous, and aerobic interval. We could also utilise different sports such as swimming and cycling (not only running)
Strength: using free weights and machine weights and also adding some elastic or hydraulic training as well. May also use different types of muscular contractions instead of just concentric or eccentric contractions, may turn to isometric contractions
What are training thresholds?
Training thresholds refer to the lowest level at which we can work and still make fitness gains. For improvement to occur, no matter how small, we must work at a sufficient intensity
What are training thresholds determined by?
They are determined by work intensity which is calculated using heart rate (typically measured in a % of MHR (maximum heart rate) )
How can MHR be calculated?
220 beats per minute minus age
What is the aerobic training threshold? (description and %MHR)
The aerobic training threshold is when a person is working at a level of intensity above the aerobic threshold and below the anaerobic threshold. The typical aerobic training threshold (it’s different for some people) is around 65-70% of MHR.
Defined as the point at which lactate begins to rise in the blood above normal resting levels.
What is the anaerobic training threshold?
Also known as the lactate inflection point (LIP) is a point at which further effort is characterised by fatigue.
The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed in order to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s anaerobic capacity, normally by increasing the bodies ability to break down and remove lactic acid. The anaerobic training threshold is normally between 80% and 85% MHR and is also known as the lactate inflection point – where blood lactate levels begin to rise rapidly because your body cannot remove it as fast as it is being produced.
WHat is an example of training in the anaerobic training threshold?
Sometimes while exercising in the aerobic training zone, we wish to increase our intensity. An example is to increase the pace during the final half of a 12-minute run. If we increase the pace to a point where the cardiorespiratory system is unable to supply all the oxygen required at that point in time, energy will start to be produced anaerobically. In other words, the body will metabolise glycogen in the absence of sufficient oxygen to fulfil immediate ATP requirements.
What are the benefits of training in the anaerobic training threshold
As a result of the by-product of anaerobic glycolysis, lactic acid starts to be produced. Well trained athletes work on their anaerobic threshold, which improves their tolerance of lactic acid
What are some examples of applications of training thresholds on aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: Efficiency of cardio system is improved if the athlete works closer to the anaerobic threshold than aerobic threshold. This level increases capacity of the functioning of cardiovascular system and allows the athlete to tolerate rises in lactic acid
Strength: The intensity of strength training can be measured by how many RMs (max reps). Studies suggest that the best maximal strength and power gains can be made using 1-6RM. Training between 8-12RM has been shown to produce significant increases in strength and is the most effective intensity in order to produce muscular hypertrophy. Training between 12-15RM is the best range to significantly improve local muscular endurance.
What is the purpose of a warm up? (4)
Reduce the risk of injury by increasing joint mobility and muscle stretch
Increase body temp and enzyme activity to promote faster and more powerful muscle contractions
Mentally prepare athlete for training
Stimulate the cardiorespiratory system
What is a warm up?
A warm up is the process whereby an athlete goes through a range of exercises in order to get their body ready for competition or training. Warm up exercises move from low intensity to high intensity and from general movements to sport specific movements.
What sort of procedure should a warm up follow? (4)
General aerobic activity such as jogging to raise body temp
Specific flexibility exercise to increase ROM of joints and prevent muscle tears
Calisthenics (i.e. push ups, star jumps etc to increase blood flow to working muscles)
Skill rehearsal (performing movements or skills that will be repeated in the game or in the sport ), this can be achieved through doing sport specific drills such as A skips for spirnts
What sort of procedure should a warm up follow? (4)
General aerobic activity such as jogging to raise body temp
Specific flexibility exercise to increase ROM of joints and prevent muscle tears
Calisthenics (i.e. push ups, star jumps etc to increase blood flow to working muscles)
Skill rehearsal (performing movements or skills that will be repeated in the game or in the sport ), this can be achieved through doing sport specific drills such as A skips for sprints
How long should a warm up be?
At least 10 mins, but for those who require explosive movements such as sprinters, warm up could last for 30 mins
What is the cool down and what is the purpose of the cool down?
Period that follows training session and is the reverse of the warm up. Purpose is to minimise the muscle stiffness and soreness that results from a strenuous training session.
What are some examples of warm ups and cool downs for aerobic training ?
Aerobic: Before aerobic training a warm up should go for 10 min and aim to increase the heart rate to the 70% MHR aerobic threshold slowly. Movements should progress from lower intensities to the higher one and from general movements such as a jog or star jump to more specific movements such as running with a ball at their feet for soccer. After the physical activity the cool down should go for 5-10 minutes, depending on the duration of the session. Exercises could include a jog around the field passing a ball and then go into some walking in various directions and then some stretching of the leg muscles for the soccer players.
What physiological adaptations to training do we study?
Resting heart rate
Stroke volume and cardiac output
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity
Haemoglobin level
Muscle hypertrophy
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
Why are there physiological adaptations in response to training?
This is because during training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of stress imposed on them. These adaptations allow for it to function more comfortably at existing levels of stress and respond more efficiently to new levels of stress
Why is the resting heart rate higher for a trained athlete than an untrained athlete?
This is due to the increased efficiency of the cardiovascular system, and particularly, a higher stroke volume, thus training decreases resting heart rate. Furthermore, there is a shorter recovery period required for those who are more trained as it is more efficient, and because their heart rate will only rise a bit
What is stroke volume?
It is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventriclee during a contraction. It is measured in mL/beat
What causes an increase in stroke volume?
It is a long term effect of endurance training. This is because training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the relaxation phase of cardiac contraction than an untrained heart. There is also an increase in blood circulation following training, leading to more blood being able to enter the ventricle, this causes a stretch in the ventricular wall which enables contractions that are more powerful.
What is cardiac output? (CO)
It is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, and it is determined by multiplying heart rate and stroke volume
Why does cardiac output increase with increased training?
This is because trained athletes have a higher stroke volume, as well as a relatively high heart rate (although lower compared to other untrained athletes as they develop slower heart rates), yet their extremely high stroke volume increases the cardiac output
What is lung capacity?
Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold
How does lung capacity change after training?
The vital capacity (amount of air that can be expelled after maximum inspiration) increases slightly, and residual volume (the amount of air that cannot be moved out of the lungs) decreases slightly.
Overall, total lung capacity remains relatively unchanged
What is haemoglobin level?
Haemoglobin is contained in the red blood cells of the body, and refers to the level of the haemoglobin in the bloodstream
How do haemoglobin levels change due to training?
Haemoglobin levels typically increase as a result of training, and this increases it’s oxygen carrying capacity. A way of increasing haemoglobin levels is also to train at high altitudes.
Why do haemoglobin levels increase as a result of training?
This typically occurs because the body adapts to carrying more oxygen as it attempts to meet the demand of the certain exercise (especially if it is endurance)
What is muscle hypertrophy?
It is a term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells. While length remains unchanged, the size of the muscle becomes larger due to an increase in mass and cross-sectional area. Hypertrophy is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow.
Does training cause muscular hypertrophy? If so, why?
Yes. It does so because training causes structural changes in muscle fibres, ultimately leading to hypertrophy. This is a direct result of mass increases in:
Actin and myosin filament (thin protein filaments producing muscle action)
Myofibrils contractile (elements of skeletal muscle)
Connective tissue (tissue that surrounds and supports muscle)
What is required to encourage muscular hypertrophy? (i.e. utilisation of what principles may encourage muscular hypertrophy)
Training needs to address the overload principle, if not, eventually the muscles may undergo atrophy. Principle of specificity is important in targeting certain muscles or regions where hypertrophy is required.
What is the extent of hypertrophy affected by? (4)
Muscle type (fast or slow twitch) - Typically the fast titch fibres are genetically larger compared to red muscle fibres.
Type of stimulus - Hypertrophy is enhanced through progressive overload, resistance training, using low rep with high resistance yields best results
Regular training (if not it may result in atrophy)
Availability of body hormones (i.e. testosterone)
What is oxygen uptake measured by?
VO2 Max (maximum oxygen uptake) and is measured in x mL/kg/min
Does oxygen uptake increase in well trained athletes?
Yes it does. It is higher than average people
Average vo2 max for boys vs girls? (17 yo)
Boys: 45mL/kg/min
Girls: 40mL/kg/min
What can VO2 max be measured by?
It can be measured by using bicycle ergometry in a lab or field tests such as the 12 min run or the beep test
What are slow twitch muscle fibres?
Slow twitch muscle fibres or type I fibres (aka red muscle fibres) contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance type activity
What are fast twitch muscle fibres?
Fast twitch muscle fibres or type II fibres (aka white fibres) reach peak tension quickly and are recruited for power and explosive movements such as throwing and lifting
Can training change the type of fibres?
No it can’t, it can only change the cross sectional area
What are slow twitch muscle fibres?
Slow twitch muscle fibres or type I fibres (aka red muscle fibres) contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance type activity
Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during sustained activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming. These fibres are efficient in using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres.
How do muscle fibres adapt to training?
While all muscles shorten and lengthen during movement, the bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity. White muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training, such as sprints, short intervals and resistance training. Red muscle fibres benefit most from endurance type activities that engage the aerobic system.
How do slow twitch muscle fibres work during exercise?
Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during sustained activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming. These fibres are efficient in using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres.
What adaptations does aerobic training cause in muscle fibres? (5)
Hypertrophy - Slow twitch fibres are recruited, which experience some growth
Capillary supply - An increase of up to 15% in number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres, thus increasing muscle efficiency
Mitochondrial function - mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, where ATP is manufactured. Aerobic training increase the number of mitochondria, as well as increase their size and efficiency
Myoglobin content - Myoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the cell membrane to mitochondria and storing it for use when necessary. Endurance training significantly increases myoglobin content
Oxidative enzymes - Level of activity of oxidative enzymes increase making production of energy more efficient
When are fast twitch muscle fibres used?
In explosive activities such as weight lifting, javelin throwing and sprinting. These fibres have high anaerobic capacity as they can contract quickly
What are the two types of fast twitch muscle fibres?
Fast twitch A fibres
Fast twitch B fibres
What are Fast twitch A fibres?
These are intermediate fast titch fibres which can produce a high output for lengthy periods because they have the ability to draw on both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to support contraction
What are Fast Twitch B fibres?
These are classic white fibres which possess high amounts of glycolytic enzymes and drawing energy solely from anaerobic sources.
What adaptations does anaerobic training cause in fast twitch fibres? (4)
ATP/PC supply - fuel supply and efficiency with the fuel being used increases
Glycolytic enzymes - These increase improving the functioning within cells
Hypertrophy - Has the potential to be considerable amounts of hypertrophy
Lactic acid tolerance - Training increases ability of FT fibres to tolerate lactic acid, allowing anaerobic performance to be sustained for longer periods of time
What is motivation?
An internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal.
What are some ways of increasing the level of motivation in players?
Recognising individual effort
Supporting belief in one’s ability
Instilling a good work ethic
Providing positive reinforcement and encouragement
What are the two diff ways of classifying motivation?
Positive or Negative
Intrinsic or extrinsic
What is positive motivation?
Positive motivation is when individual performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours. It occurs when the athlete performs because they have received rewards or certain incetives for similar actions in the past and they realise that continuing to perform as required results in additional rewards.
Positive motivation is sustainable
What are some examples of positive motivation?
Providing incentives
Developing personal progress charts
recognising achievements
Handling mistakes constructively
How should a coach implement positive motivation?
establish a gradual sequence of challenges for the athlete. Challenges are positive and motivating whereas threats are negative and destructive in the long term
What is negative motivation?
This is where an athlete may be inspired to perform more from a fear of the consequences of not performing than as a result of a motivated behaviour. This means that there is an improvement in performance out of fear of consequences
What are some disadvantages of utilising negative motivation to drive an athlete to perform?
It may result in indecision, lack of creativity, fear of risk taking, and susceptibility to choking
Generally, negative motivation may cause a player to always opt for a safe play and not to take risks where the reward could be a victory but is outweighed by consequence of failure
Is positive or negative motivation better?
Positive is better in most cases, although negative motivation can be utilised in some cases.
What is intrinsic motivation?
This is a type of motivation that comes within the individual. It is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity and enjoy learning and performing the movements.
This typically originates from inner feelings and may serve to drive a need to succeed, accomplish or perform at the best level. It is self sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment become its own reward
Is intrinsic motivation preferred?
Yes this is because effort and personal accomplishment because acts as its own reward, and these rewards are much stronger driving forces than anything else extrinsic
What is flow experience?
Characterised by a very high level of concentration, to the extent that an individual is completely absorbed in the task, and when in this zone, performance is maintained without conscious effort
Is flow experience important to intrinsic motivation?
Yes it is. It represents the highest level of internal motivation
What is extrinsic motivation?
This refers to motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as parents and coaches. It tends to have an outcome or ego orientation.
Extrinsic motivation is seen in many forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration.
What are the short comings of external motivation?
May create increased pressure/stress
External motivation is not consistent and don’t last long
No passion created
What are the advantages of external motivation
It creates a desire to chase after goals or dreams
Decently effective at increasing short term motivation
What are the advantages of internal motivation?
Greater persistence
Enhanced engagement
Greater enjoyment and satisfaction
What are some advantages of negative motivation?
Fear is a powerful motivator which can motivate you to perform well if kept at moderate amounts
What is anxiety? What are some of it’s symptoms? in sports
It is a psychological process which is characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening .
It typically causes a fight or flight response
Characterised by feelings of weakness, ‘butterflies’, elevated HR, muscle tension, physical or mental paralysis
How do sports contribute to anxiety?
Because of the unpredictable nature of performance or the uncertainty of the outcome. Any sporting contest can give rise to anxiety when one’s perceived ability does not measure up to the demands of the task.
Also, anxiety can also be entrenched in deep expectations, especially if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled
What is trait anxiety?
Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual. It is evident in how we respond to daily situations, of which many are new and cause concern.
Trait anxiety refers to anxiety as a characteristic of a person, so that the person is generally anxious about unknown outcomes, it is a part of who the person is. People have various levels of trait anxiety
What is state anxiety?
State anxiety refers to anxiety that arises in a particular situation. Everyone experiences state anxiety, but the stimulus can vary. In sport state anxiety may rise when an athlete is in a high-pressure situation and is called upon to perform. Examples of this include: serving for the match in tennis, taking a penalty shot in soccer, converting a try in rugby, or shooting a free throw in basketball.
Another example is that when a spider comes up to a person, the individual may experience anxiety, because it is normal, but different people will experience different anxiety to the situation which creates anxiety to anyone
What are the negative effects of state anxiety?
They can contribute to physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance or a task which may otherwise be routine and has been repeated many times.
An example, may include false starting at the start of important swimming or track races due to the pressure of the situation
What are some ways to address state anxiety?
Have the athlete better understand the nature of the anxiety, confronting its causes and refusing to submit to controlling fears which may arise because of it.
Some anxiety techniques may include relaxation, slow breathing, changing pattern of thinking and engaging in thought distraction
What is stress?
Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it. Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional or psychological strain.
a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation
What is stress characterised by? (5)
increased blood supply to skeletal muscles
more oxygen to the lungs
increased glucose production to provide extra fuel
increased sweat production to cool the body
tightened muscles to prepare the body for action.
Can stress be both real and imagined or only real?
Can be real and imagined. Thinking about a certain situation that causes concerns will also cause stress. Thinking about something that makes us uncomfortable can bring about symptoms such as increased heart rate and sweating
What are stressors?
Factors that produce stress
What are some stressors in practice and competitive sporting environments? (i.e. what can they develop from( (4)
personal pressure — individual pressure imposed by the desire to win, achieve or fulfil goals
competition pressure — pressure exerted by opponents on the field of play
social pressure — pressure from coaches, parents, peers and others who are held in esteem by the athlete
physical pressure — the pressure of having to perform learned skills under the demands of competition.
What are some traits that are important in containing anxiety?
Positive expectations and confidence
Self assurance and self belief
What are some ways to cope with stress? (4)
practising relaxation techniques
developing concentration skills that require focusing on the immediate task rather than on the perceived reaction to it
developing confidence
planning strategies to cope with the situation
What is arousal?
Arousal is a specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during a performance.
Arousal is the level of activation and alertness experienced by a performer.
When is arousal good?
It is good for performing a skill very successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that task and individual.
For example, running the 100m sprint, an individual may complete a time worse than expected which could be attributed to low arousal.
What does the inverted U hypothesis suggest?
It illustrates a connection between arousal and performance (with arousal on the x-axis and performance on the y axis, and the shape being an inverted parabola).
Suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for any performance, and is typically in between the low and high levels of arousal (at the peak of the inverted U hypothesis)
What are features of low arousal?
Performance may suffer from factors such as lack of motivation, disinterest, poor concentration and the inability to cope with distractions
What are features of high/over arousal?
This is where the athlete is unable to perform the required movements with precision because they are excessively tense and unable to concentrate
Feelings would be characterised by anxiousness and apprehension, reflecting excessive concern about performance –> Increased muscular tension and mental confusion
Does the optimal level of arousal stay the same for all skills?
No the optimal level of arousal varies from one skill to the next. Generally, when difficult tasks involving few muscle groups are involved such as archery and putting in golf - levels of arousal don’t need to be too high to be optimal.
However, activities that are easier to execute or involve large body movements such as running, require an increase in level of arousal for performance to be optimal
What do optimal arousal levels depend on? (7)
Self expectation
Expectation by others
Experience
Financial pressures (does the individual’s livelihood depend on the performance?)
Level of competition
Degree of difficulty
Skills finesse
What are the 4 psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety that we study?
Concentration/attention skills (focusing)
Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery
Relaxation techniques
Goal setting
What is mental rehearsal?
It is the technique of picturing the performance or skill before executing it. It can be referreed to as visualisation or mental imagery
What are the benefits of mental rehearsal?
Has been shown to enhance competition performance as well as the acquisition and building of motor skills.
It also improves concentration and provides the athlete ith additional practice
What is involved in mental rehearsal?
Involves the mental repetition of a mmovement or sequence to increase the mind’s familiarity with the desired motion. It relies on the power of imagery, and involves recalling and then reliving the execution of a skill or performance.
What does mental rehearsal lead to? (4)
Elevates body to desired level of arousal
Provides a clear idea of what has to be done
Heightens concentration
Narrows thoughts to the task
What is required as part of mental rehearsal? (6)
Vivid, realistic pictures at performance speed in the mind
At least one and possibly more rehearsals
Narrowing of thoughts to exclude distractions
A sense of ‘experiencing’ - seeing colours, hearing sounds, feeling movement and noticing the crowd
Seeing a successful performance
Practice, so the process can be ‘turned on’ when required
What is the purpose of relaxation techniques?
It is there to assist the athlete in control of arousal, as over arousal will have a negative impact.
What are 6 techniques commonly used by athletes to relax?
Progressive muscular relaxation
Mental relaxation
Self hypnosis
Mental rehearsal
Meditation
Centred breathing
What is progressive muscular relaxation?
Involves relaxing muscle groups using special exercises
What is mental relaxation?
Involves relaxing the body through controlled breathing, relaxing the mind
What is self-hypnosis?
Involves using the power of suggestion to have the mind to accept a particular level of anxiety in a specific situation
What is mental rehearsal?
Involves concentrating on rehearsing the performance of the task rather than on how you feel about it
What is meditation?
Involves narrowing one’s thoughts using simple repetitive images and sounds
What is centred breathing?
Involves controlling breathing to release tension before a performance
Do all these relaxation techniques help everyone the same?
No. Each athlete will have to find the relaxation technique that suits them best personally
What psychological strategy does michael phelps utilise before races?
He utilises visualisation of all aspects of the race, not only the good but also things that could go wrong so that the mind is ready to react just in case it happens. Basically cover every possible scenario. He aims to relax before doing visualisation
What is the importance of goal setting?
Goal setting empowers the athlete with responsibility, and are more likely to seriously attempt to fulfil them. Goals also provide athletes with a reason to persevere with training over extended periods.
They provide focus, give direction and help people realise aspirations
What are goals?
Targets that we direct our efforts towards. They can be related to either performance or behaviour
What are the four different types of goals that an athlete may utilise?
Short term goals
Long term goals
Behavioural goals
Performance goals
What are short term goals?
These are goals that can be achieved in a limited period of time; for example, ‘I will complete at least three endurance training sessions this week’. They are stepping stones to achieving long-term goals.
What are long term goaals?
These goals can be achieved only over a long period of time. For example; to complete the city to surf fun run
What are behavioural goals?
They relate to improved behavioural expectations in training, competition or both.
They are observable, measurable behaviours rather than aspirations. An athlete may aim, for example, to be more punctual at training, to control their temper on the field, or to refrain from criticising other athletes.
What are performance goals?
These goals relate to an athlete’s desired level of success; for example, a state, national or even Olympic medal.
What is concentration?
Ability to focus on the task at hand
What is the importance of concentration in sports?
Ultimately by concentrating well, an athlete takes in the information necessary to make good decisions, such as responding to an opponent or adapting to the environment. Athletes who concentrate well, make good decisions within a competitive environment and develop overall self-confidence.
Do athletes need to know what to focus on at a particular time?
Yes they do. They also need to be able to adapt to changing situations
How is concentration developed?
Through training
Why is continuous concentration bad?
This is because it can cause over arousal
What are the different types of concentration?
Intense concentration (required in activities such as gymnastics, diving)
Intervals of high concentration (with less intense concentration) - predominately in most team games such as touch and netball
Sustained concentration - Sports or activities such as marathon or triathlon running (activities that take a long time)
Does concentration vary?
Yes they do, as seen in various sports which may require high concentration on the task at hand such as golf
How can attention/concentration be improved in an athlete?
Attention or focus can be improved by blocking out distractions and using positive self-talk. The more the athlete focuses on the completing the skill with the correct technique, the better their focus is and the better their skill execution will become.
What are the three nutritional considerations that we learn about?
Pre-performance (including carbohydrate loading)
During performance
Post performance
Is nutritional balance important for improving performance?
Yes. You need to be aware of various factors such as what to eat and drink, being aware of the most time for food intake and having recovery strategies in place
What are the two most important nutritonal considerations?
Food and hydration (fluids)
Why is food important?
Because they contain nutrients that power essential body functions as well as provide energy
Why are fluids important?
They are important because it is the body’s way for cooling heated muscles and ultimately preventing dehydration. It also aids oxygen transportation to cells
What are the three types of important considerations for athletes to be aware of as part of pre-performance nutritional strategies?
What type of food to eat and in what amount
When to eat and drink
How to carbohydrate load if required
Is this statement true?
Food consumed prior to activity is useful only if digested and its energy and nutrients made available to where they are rquird in the body
This statement is true. Remember that the food HAS to be digested
What sorts of foods are athletes advised to eat (i.e. type of food for pre-performance)
Athletes are advised to eat mostly complex carbohydrates such as pasta, cereal, breads and fruits. This is because they provide a slow energy release.
Furthermore, athletes should NOT experiment with unfamiliar foods on the day (prior) of the competition
What foods aren’t recommended for pre performance meals? Why?
Foods high in fat, protein and fibre such as meats should not be ingested because they take longer to digest and consuming large amounts of these foods may lead to discomfort and possible indigestion
What amount of food should be ingested pre-performance?
Appropriate quantity of food relates to the type of competition, with competitors in endurance type competition requiring more kilojoules to fuel metabolism than in less demanding events
However, large amounts of food are prone to causing more discomfort in high intensity or sustained events like running as op
When should athletes consume food for pre performance? (important to rmbr)
Most athletes feel comfortable having a normal meal three to four hours prior to competition. These foods should be complex carbs as opposed to fatty foods. As time period to comp becomes shorter, food intake should be in the form of snacks and liquid preparations as opposed to full meals.
Limited solids can still be consumed up to 2 hrs prior to com, while carb solution drinks are preferred in 30 mins prior to the event
What period of time is considered ‘pre-performance’
Could be a few days before, but could also be a few hours before the event
What is a sample food intake plan? (Including 3-4 hrs, 1-2 hrs and less than 1 hr before comp)
3-4 hrs before comp: Baked beans on toast with an apple
1-2 hrs before comp: Milkshake or fruit smoothie
<1hr before comp: Sports drink, carbohydrate gels, cordials
Is hydration also related to body weight? If so, why?
Yes, because if there are increases in weight, there is an increase in glycogen and each gram of glycogen stores 2.6 grams of water with it.
What is the general rule of how much fluid should be consumed in the 2-3 hr period prior to endurance performance?
500-600mL, maybe even up to 1L
What is the general rule of how much fluid should be consumed in the last quarter of an hour prior to endurance performance?
250-300mL
What is carbohydrate loading?
It is a technique used to maximise the body’s storage of glycogen in preparation for a high intensity endurance activity of more than 90 mins.
How is the method of carbohydrate loading implemented?
Have a balanced diet that is high in carbohydrates which provide about 7-12 grams per kilo of body weight. Complex carbohydrates such as breads, rice, grains and pastas are ideals. They may be consumed with simple carbohydrates such as soft drinks and honey to ensure carb intake is maximised.
Furthermore, tapering of training 2-4 days before comp will enable glycogen supplies to maximise
What are the effects of a proper carb loading program?
Positive effect on endurance, improving performance by around 2-3%, which is significant for activities such as triathlons, marathons, cycling and endurance swimming
What do nutritional considerations for ‘DURING PERFORMANCE’ need to address?
Carb supplementation
Conserve muscle glycogen and maintain blood glucose levels
Adequate hydration
How much fluid should be consumed during exercise/performance?
200-300mL of fluid should be consumed every 15-20 minutes during exercise.
Fluid consumed should preferably be in the form of a sports drink
What does the need for carb and electrolyte replacement depend on?
Intensity, duration, humidity, clothing type and individual sweat rates
What are the best strategies to prevent dehydration? (8)
Hydrate before, during and after physical activity
Drink every 15-20 mins while running (despite not feeling too thirsty
Drink water or low carb concentration sports drinks
Ensure that there has been acclimatisation to race conditions
Wear clothing that are light and airy (i.e. breathes well - promotes heat loss through convection and evaporation)
Avoid activity in high temp and high humidity
Avoid excess fat and any salt and alcohol
Don’t run if suffering from fever
How much water is lost by runners every hour?
Three to five cups of water
Where does Eliud Kipchoge train for acclimatisation?
Kaptagat in Kenya
What are fluid losses affected by? (5)
Genetics
Body size
fitness
Environment
Exercise intensity
What is the purpose of a post-performanc nutritional plan?
Aims to return the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible, enabling full training to resume in preparation for the next phase of competition.
How much carbohydrates need to be consumed in the first two hours after exercise? (for sports which are high in endurance such as cycling or marathon running)
50-100 grams
How much carbs should then be taken in every two hours after the first two hours? (for sports which are high in endurance such as cycling or marathon running)
50-75 grams every two hours until a total of 500-600 grams of carb
What is the best way to recover from a sports event? (2 in terms of nutrition + 1 extra)
Immediately replacing depleted muscle and liver glycogen stores. An intake high in carbs and inclusive of foods and drinks with high GI (glycaemic index) is beneficial.
Rehydrating to replace fluid and electrolytes lost during the event. Special fluid intake should be in quantities larger than normal. Studies show at least 150% of fluid losses to enable full recovery
Sleep is also important
What are the forms of supplementation that we study?
Vitamins/minerals
Protein
Caffeine
Creatine products
What are vitamins?
They are inorganic compounds that are essential to maintaining bodily functions. Required in small quantities in the body
What do vitamins assist in?
Functions such as energy release, metabolic regulation and tissue building
How does the body get vitamins?
The body is unable to manufacture vitamins, so diet must supply them. A balanced deit is important because food is the main source of vitamins
Should athletes take supplements even though theeir normal diet contains all necessary vitamins?
They can use capsules which provide vitamins, as long as it does not end up providing more than 100% of all the necessary vitamins (i.e. don’t overdose on vitamins)
What are the cons of intaking excessive quantities of vitamins (through supplements)
Supplements can be expensive and wasteful
Body has no use for some excess vitamins and may be excreted
Excess vitamins can be dangerous such as excess amounts of vitamin A and D
What do overdoses in vitamin A lead to?
Nausea
Loss of appetite
Fatigue
Skin dryness
What should the reasoning for supplementation bee?
To help develop positive nutritional habits, it shouldn’t be for a desire for improved performance but out of also special needs. I.e. ill health or the unavailability of a normally diet while travelling
What are minerals?
They are inorgnic substances found in the body that are necessary for it to function adequately. They don’t provide energy (similar to vitamin(
What are the two minerals which are most commonly deficient in athletes?
Iron and calcium
Which athletes are most at risk of iron deficiency?
- endurance athletes, as a result of sweat loss
- females, as a result of menstrual blood loss
- vegetarians, as a result of a lack of red meat in the diet
- adolescent
males, as a result of a growth spurt.
What does iron deficiency cause?
It can cause lack of energy and general fatigue
Diminished iron levels will affect performance because muscle cells are deprived of oxygen which is required to break down nutrients and produce energy
What can calcium deficiency cause?
It can cause the deterioration of the quality of bone tissue, which can lead to osteoporosis which may make an athlete more prone to fractures etc.
What are sources of calcium?
Dairy products, leafy green vegetables, fish such as salmon
Who are people at risk of calcium deficiency?
- females, as a result of an insufficient intake of dairy products
- females whose menstrual cycles have ceased, leading to a loss of calcium from bone tissue.
Core
What is the function of protein?
Hold the cells together and assists in the growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue
Functional role in hormone production and nervous system transmissions
How much protein should be consumed per person (as a guideline)?
There should be around 1g of protein per kg of body weight
Why do many athletes utilise protein supplements?
Because of their muscle building qualities with higher intake leading to higher muscle sizes
WHat % of Australian recommended intake should be protein
12-15%
Is it helpful to consumer more than 1.2-2g/kg of protein a day? What are the negative impacts it can have on health?
No it isn’t
What are the impacts of excess protein?
It is needless and wastefu
Certain supplements contains additives that have no health benefits and may increase risk of certain cancers
High protein can increase amount of calcium excreted in urine, may lead to osteoporosis
Can interfere with kidney function
Can contribute to obesity due to high fat content
Does caffeine improve cognitive processes?
Can improve alertness, concentration for mild amounts of caffeine. However, caffeine should not be consumed in excess as it may cause symptoms of anxiety, which is detrimental in accuracy sports such as shooting or archery
Does caffeine improve performance in short-term high intensity activities such as sprinting?
Has not been proven
Can caffeine contribute to dehydration?
It could, as it increases the amount of fluid passing from the body, which may be bad for athltes wworking hot , humid environments
Can caffeine contribute to dehydration?
It could, as it increases the amount of fluid passing from the body, which may be bad for athletes working hot , humid environments
How can caffeine assist in endurance performance?
Changes athletes perception of fatigue
Promotes glycogen sparing; process where fat is metabolised early, sparing finite reserves of glycogen
What are the two sources of creatine?
Production by body cells and food intake (particularly from meat)
Is it proven that creatine has erformance enhancing properties?
No it has not beeen proven
What performance enhancing properties is suggested that creatine has?
Delayed fatigue
Increased strength
Burning fats
How come creatine may not have such a beneficial impact on athletes?
Because the body is unable to store excess amounts of creatine, so supplementation will have a small impact
In which situations may use of creatine be viable?
Those who are vegetarians may want to consume creatine, as it can raise creatine levels in muscle by 20-30% because they do not get creatine from meats
Is research conclusive about the benefits and disadvantages of creatine
No
What are the reasons for using creatine supplements?
Creatine products used for supplementation could increase PC stores and enable the alactacid energy system to be utilised for longer and recover faster. Theoretically this would allow maximal power and energy production to be maintained for longer, however, the major benefit actually comes with faster recovery of the system. Creatine supplementation would benefit sports such as, 100m sprint, but also rugby league and soccer as recovery of this system would speed up allowing for greater repetition of sprints required in these sports.
An increase in PC would also allow for faster recovery between sets, leading to a greater overall workload.
What are the important vitamins?
B vitamins, vitamin D, C, E and beta - carotene
What is the function of B vitamins?
B vitamins are a group of vitamins that optimise energy production as well as the building and repair of muscle tissue. B vitamins are also vital in red blood cell production.
What is the function of vitamin D?
Vitamin D is needed for adequate calcium absorption and promotes bone health. It also helps regulate the homeostasis of the nervous system and skeletal muscle.
What is the function of the antioxidants (Vitamins C, E and beta-carotene)?
help protect cell membranes from oxidative damage. More antioxidants are needed because exercise increases oxygen consumption, which increases oxidative damage.
What minerals are important to performance?
Iron, Zinc, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Calcium.
Why is iron important to performance?
Iron is the most important as it gives haemoglobin and myoglobin their shape allowing transportation of oxygen around the body and in the muscle. Without enough Iron, there will not be enough oxygen to maintain the higher intensities that would normally use the aerobic energy system. The lack of oxygen will also negatively affect the recovery times of the anaerobic systems and delay recovery after performance.
Why is calcium important to performance?
Calcium is required for bone repair, growth and development, but is also a vital nutrient for muscle contraction and nerve conduction (transmission of message).
Why is zinc important to performance?
Zinc is required for the growth and repair of muscle tissue.
Why is magnesium important to performance?
Magnesium is required for muscular contraction and plays a role in glycolysis. A deficiency in magnesium causes an increased requirement for oxygen for submaximal output.
Why are sodium, Chloride and potassium important in performance?
Sodium, Chloride and Potassium all play an important role in neural transmission. Sodium is critical, especially as it is lost during exercise through sweat.
What are the 4 different recovery srategies we study?
Physiological strategies (e.g. cool down, hydration)
Neural strategies (eg. hydrotherapy, massage)
Tissue damage strategies (eg. cryotherapy)
Psychological strategies (eg. relaxation)
What do physiological recovery strategies focus on?
Removal of metabolic by-products
Nutritional plan to replace lost fluids and energy-rich nutrients
What are examples of physiological recovery strategies?
Cool down and nutritional plans
What is the purpose of a cool down following exercise?
Gradually reduce heart rate and metabolism to the pre exercise state
Doing so will allow elevated body functions such as ventilation rate and adrenaline levels to decrease to normal
What are the negative effects of not concluding vigorous exercise with a cool down?
Blood pooling which causes dizziness
What are the positive effects of doing a cool down?
Assists in the removal of waste products including lactic acid
Prevents muscle spasms, cramps and possibly assist in preventing DOMS
What should be included in a cool down?
A cool down needs to be active and gradual. Should consist of 5-10 mins of walking/jogging/slow swimming with the aim of returning the body to pre-exercise temp. Also have to do static stretching. Compression garments can also be used
What are the benefits of compression garments? (5)
Improved blood lactate removal
Reduce symptoms associated with DOMS (Delayed onset muscle soreness)
Less swelling in muscles and joints
Reduced muscle fatigue
Reduced sensations of post-exercise soreness
What should be part of a successful nutritional plan for physiological recovery?
Fluid and fuel recovery
What should be considered in fluid recovery?
Drinking with intermittent sipping over an extended period of time allows for the replacement of fluid. However, loss of 2% of body weight in sweat is best addressed by drinking 600mL.
Type of drink chosen should be real fruit juices, milk drinks, sports drinks (because they include full range of nutrients including carbs, vitamins and potassium). However, water is also fine
What should be considered in fuel recovery?
Athletes need to replenish depleted glycogen and blood sugar in the first 30mins - 2hrs following exercise to ensure fuel recovery. Food consumption be mainly carbohydrates and a bit of protein.
What are some examples of carb rich foods and drinks which should be consumed for days if endurance exercise such as cycling or long distance running contributed to fuel losses?
Examples of carbohydrate-rich
foods and drinks include fruit juices such as orange juice, rice, pasta, bread, milk, yoghurt and fruit (fresh and
dried).
Why is hydration important for recovery?
Hydration speeds up recovery by enabling bodies physiological processes to function well, as dehydration can slow down or even stop some of the recovery processes
Also, adds more volume to the blood to assist in the removal of waste product
What are neural strategies?
They aim to relax muscles which have been fatigued or damaged as a result of high intensity exercise
What are some examples of neural srategies that we study?
Hydrotherapy and massages
What is involved in hydrotherapy?
Involves use of water to relax, soothe pain and assist metabolic recovery. Water supports movements and eliminates jarring and straining movements associated with land drills and field exercises
What are some ways of utilising hydrotherapy? (what hydrotherapy methods) i.e. using spas
Steam roms, spas, underwater massage and heated swimming pools
What are the three popular hydrotherapy techniques used
Hot water immersion
Cold water immersion
Contrastt water therapy
What are the impacts of hot water immersion?
Hot water immersion causes dilation (widening) of blood vessels in the body’s extremities. As the temperature of the body’s surface area increases, blood flows
more freely to the limbs, lowering blood pressure and enhancing the removal of waste.
It also helps relieve tension and helps speed up recovery
What are the impacts of cold water immersion?
Cold water immersion (usually 10-15 degrees) causes blood flow to the extremities to be reduced. This occurs due to decreased heart rate and constriction of the blood vessels in response to sudden drop in temp. This is good for reducing inflammation
What is contrast water therapy and what are the impacts?
Basically where it utilises both hot and cold water immersion to help with recovery
This practice enhances the cycle of blood vessel dilation/constriction thereby increasing blood mobility through the tissues –> rapid dispersal of waste, reduce muscle soreness and promotes faster recovery
What is the function of a massage?
Helps injury prevention as it helps relaxes exercise induced tension and stress on joints, ligaments, tendons and muscles
Helps relieve swelling, reduce muscle tension and assist in eliminating toxic by-products
Can help in shortening recovery time between wworkouts and events
What is the function of tissue damage strategies?
Treat injurt or quicken recovery
What is a form of tissue damage strategy?
cryotherapy, using ice packs, cold water immersion, cryogenic chambers
How does cryotherapy work?
Uses ice to help slow down the tissue inflammatory process , preventing the build up of waste. If not removed quickly, it contributs to muscle soreness and stiffness and reduces flexibility
What is a psychological strategy that we study for recovery?
relaxation
What is the function of psychological strategies? (3)
Focus on mental processes and are used to either calm the athletes brain activity or to stimulate them. They also aim to reduce anxiety in order to allow the brain to relax and also focus on the athlete’s thoughts on the upcoming event
Also, after hard training and demanding performances, athletes may experience symptoms of low concentration and motivation. I.e. after losing a major comp such as state of origin
WHat are some examples of relaxation methods?
Reading, listening to music, and watching movies
What are the three stages of skill acquisition?
Cognitive
Associative
autonomous
What are features of the cognitive stage of skill acquisition?
Characterised by mental processes and the athlete thinking about the skill. At this stage, the athlete needs to think about their body position, which muscles they are contracting and what the movement should look like
Large frequent errors and have robotic jerky movements
What are ways that a coach can assist an athlete at the cognitive stage of learning?
Demonstrations, videos and information highlighting important points (but can’t information overload which may confuse the learner)
Positive reinforcement - don’t provide them with negative motivation as theey are still just learning
How long does an athlete spend in the cognitive stage?
Depends on how the sequences of skill building are organised, both physically and in the mind of the learner. Depending on the difficulty of the skill (or complexity of the task), it could be learned in anything from a few minutes to a much longer period. Some difficult skills (such as handstands and somersaults) may never be mastered by some people.
What is the associative stage?
This is where the athlete has progressed from thinking about what they are doing to thinking about how they do the skill.
What are features of the associative stage?
There are still some errors as they move along the continuum, but aren’t as frequent as cognitive stage
Sense of fluency or smoothness in movements
Confidence increases
What are ways that an athlete can move on from the associative stage?
A LOT OF PRACTICE
Feedback is essential to improving the skill
What are the main features of the autonomous stage?
Ability to automatically execute the skill, and execution of the movement is now properly sequences and performed instinctively.
Able to attend other cues while giving little thought to how to perform the skill. I.e. In a netball game, for example, the problem is not how to make a pass, but who to pass to
Is practice still required at the autonomous stage?
Yes it is still integral but not as important as developing other skills such as game sense (if in a team sport)
What is the autonomous stage of skill acquisition?
When the athlete no longer thinks at all about the skill
What is the role of a coach for someone at the autonomous stage?
Focuses on the execution of the skill under pressure and with various cognitive processes being completed at the same time
What are the different characteristics of the learner that we study?
Personality
Heredity
Confidence
Prior experience
Ability
Why are the characteristics of the learner important?
It is because they can affect the speed at which learners are able to acquire certain motor skills or learn certain sports
What are some examples of personality that are favourable when learning a new motor skill? (6)
Cooperativeness
Willingness to listen
Determination
Dedication
Level of motivation
Aggressiveness
What is personality?
Refers to an individual’s characteristic way of behaving, and develops as a result of the individual’s infinite social interactions and learning experiences
How does personality impact acquisition of skill?
The indiividual has to have a ersonality which is characterised by a good work eethic, as it will assist them in developing a skill faster than someone who is not. Acquiring a skill requires hard work and personality will determine whether the athlete puts in that hard work
What is heredity?
Basically are the certain characteristics which are inherited from their parents. These are
unchangeable and limit the dimensions of their
potential.
What are 5 hereditary characteristics which influence success or otherwise in specific athletic events?
The relative percentage of fast twitch to slow twitch muscle fibres
Somatotype
Gender
Height
Conceptual ability
How does the percentage of fast to slow twitch muscle fibres impact skill acquisition?
Athletes with a higher percentage of fast-twitch fibres are naturally more suited to sprint and
explosive events, whereas those endowed
with slow-twitch fibres tend to be more
successful at endurance events.
What is somatotype and how does it impact skill acquisition?
Refers to the tendency towards different body types (such as ectomorphic, mesomorphic or endomorphic) which determines an individual’s suitability for many activities. For example, if an individual is an endomorph (a bit fatter), they would not be suited for sports which require speed and agility such as tennis
Essentially determnies what kinds of sports or skills an individualis best suited to
How does gender impact skill acquisition?
This is because higher levels of testosterone in males give them potential to make greater increases in strength and power than females. Thus, this links in with heredity as it will limit the individual’s ‘ceiling’ for performance, depending on the sport
For example, women will probably plateau in weight lifting compared to men
How does height impact skill acquisition?
Differences in height (and weight) provide considerable physical and biomechanical
advantages to some players and make the learning and execution of required skills a less difficult process.
What is conceptual ability and why is it important to skill acquisition?
The ability to visualise a movement and make it materialise is a significant factor,
particularly in the first stages of learning. Will determine how quickly an athlete can move out of the cognitive stage of skill acquisition
How does confidence contribute to skill acquisition?
Confidence unlocks energy and creativity and allows for the power of belief. Confident learners approach skill learning situations with feelings of being able to raise to the challenge, and will also be beneficial for performance. It will also allow for the athlete to learn skills faster
What is confidence?
Belief in one’s own ability
How can coaches increase the confidence of athletes?
They can provide opportunities for success early on in order to grow the athlete’s belief in their ability to do the skill well –> Increased success leads to increased confidence which leads to a continuous cycle which is beneficial
How does prior experience impact skill acquisition?
It is easier to learn a new skill if similar movements have already been successfully acquired. The prior experience has the potential to accelerate the learning progress.
Having prior experience may lead to lateral transfer or vertical transfer of skills
What is lateral transfer of skills?
Transfer from one task to another similar task. This is quite easy and is simply a similar skill from one context to another
E.g. tackling in rugby union to tackling in rugby league
What is vertical transfer of skills?
Transfer of a skill from a lower order skill to a similar higher order skill
Eg. Shooting in basketball to doing a lay up in basketball or learning the dolphin kick before learning butterfly swimming
What is ability?
It is seen in the way in which an individual is able to learn, process and implement new skills.
It refers to the ease of performing movements and performances (i..e. talent), as well as the athlete’s competency in a particular skill
What are some factors considered in ability?
Sense acuity (sharpness)
Perception
Reaction time
Intelligence
Ability is often a combination of these characteristics in the athlete and may also include the capacity to read a game, sport or comp
How does ability affect skill acquisition?
Athlete’s with greater abilities learn and process new skills faster than athlete’s with lower abilities. They often will reach the higher levels of skill acquisition faster and for a wide variety of skills that are related to each other.
What are open skills?
Open skills are skills which are performed in a constantly changing environment (such as weather, opposition, surface). They are basically executed in unstable environments.
They occur when performers have to make decisions and adapt their skills to a changing or unpredictable environment. The performer is not in control of what will happen next.
What is an example of an open skill?
Kicking a goal in AFL or trying to dribble past an opponent in soccer
What is a closed skill?
A closed skill is performed in the same conditions every time. It occurs in an environment that is stable and predictable
What are 2 examples of closed skills?
Weight lifting or ten pin bowling
What are gross motor skills?
These skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution. Commonly found in team games
What are some examples of gross motor skills?
Running, leaping, vaulting, surfing
What are fine motor skills?
These are skills which use small or isolated muscles. (i.e. the smaller movements)
What are some examples of fine motor skills?
Shooting or archery
What is a discrete skill?
A discrete skill is a task that requires a single response and have a clear beginning and an eend
What is an example of a discrete skill?
A forward roll or flip in gymnastics
What is a serial skill?
A serial skill combines a number of separate smaller skills to perform the larger, more complex skill. Here, there are a number of discrete skills used to form a larger skill
What are examples of serial skills?
Running up to a footy and kicking it, lay up in basketball
How can learning a serial skill be perfected?
It can be perfected through focussing on each discrete movement separately, and working on each part
What are continuous skills?
These are skills which are repetitive and may appear ongoing and unbroken within a particular period (i.e. no distinct beginning or end)
What are examples of continuous skills?
Swimming , jogging, rowing
What does pacing refer to?
Refers to the performer’s control over the timing of skill execution. Two types of pacing: self paced and externally paced
What are self paced skills?
Refer to movements where the performer determines the timing and speed of execution
What are 2 examples of self-paced skills?
Kicking a football in practice and serving a tennis ball
What are externally paced skills?
This is where the skill has its timing and speed determined by external factors such as opposing players or music
What are 2 examples of externally paced skills?
Dancing, batting in baseball
What are the 3 performance elements integral to a sport? that we study
Decision making, strategic and tactical development
What are ways of improving the 3 performance elements tthat we study?
Teaching and coaching that emphasise game-centred approaches which allow for the opportunity to develop performance elements
What is the best way to achieve productive decision making? (4)
Observation (observing other player and their movements)
Questioning
variation (explore variations in training)
Creativity (identify a problem and solve it as a group)
What is decision making?
Refers to the various decisions made by an athlete during a performance. Including where to hit the ball, who to pass to etc.
How can decision making be improved?
Through demonstrations of good decision making, asking questions of the players about theoretical scenarios, and exploring various scenarios
Whatt is strategy and tactics?
Strategy: overall method used to achieve the goal
Tactics: Includes things like moving into space, marking players etc.
How can strategy and tactics be developed? (3)
Through technical efficiency, understanding the game and good execution
Must be practiced to ensure timing is correct and execution is smooth and successful
Each individual player needs to understand their role within the strategy and learn to execute the strategy
What are the four practice methods that we study?
Massed, distributed, whole, part
What is massed practice?
Involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals
Works well for skilled and motivated athletes and suits skills that are frequently used in performance
What is distributed practice?
These have short periods of practice with longer breaks from the skill rehearsal. Often used for less skilled and less motivated athletes. Good for teaching more ‘boring’ skills
When does massed practice work best? (3)
When performers are:
Highly motivated
Fresh
Unable to attend a number of sessions
When does distributed practice work best? (5)
Performer lacks interest
Task is difficult
Motivation is low
Task causes fatigue
Excessive work causes discomfort
What is whole practice?
This is when the skill is practiced in its entirety and is often used for discrete and continuous skills. I.e. good for teaching swimming or running
What is part practice?
When the skill is broken down into its smaller parts and each part is practiced in isolation before being joined together. Often used for teaching serial skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill such as a basketball lay up
What is an example of whole and part practice in basketball?
For doing a layup, would involve catching the ball, and then dribbling and stepping and finally shooting as a layup.
Whole practice would involve doing the whole movement
Part practice would involve practicing each of these parts
What are the ways of categorising a skill?
Open or closed
Gross or fine
Discrete or serial or continuous
Self paced or externally paced
What is part of feedback?
Internal or external feedback
Concurrent or delayed feedback
Knowledge of results
Knowledge of performance
What is feedback?
It is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of their performance
Why is feedback important?
Because it provides guidance and helps the performer eradicate movement error
What is internal feedback?
Internal feedback comes from the performer and how the movement felt, and relies on proprioception ( body’s ability to sense movement, action, and location ).
What are two examples of internal feedback?
A soccer player feeling that they did not connect with the ball correctly or a sprinter thinking that they didn’t run as fast because they feel ‘bad’
What is external feedback?
This is feedback derived from outside sources during performance
What are four examples of external feedback?
Comment from a coach
Judge scores
Race results
Crowd cheers
What is concurrent feedback?
This is feedback received during the performance of a skill
What is an example of concurrent feedback?
A coach stopping a golfer mid swing to correct their grip on their handle
A sprint coach telling an athleete to lift their knees higher whilst sprinting
What is delayed feedback?
Delayed feedback is received after the skill is completed
What is an example of delayed feedback?
Video analysis of a baseball pitchers performance or waiting for a successful basketball throw (i.e. waiting to see if it wwent through the net or not)
What is knowledge of result as a form of feedback?
Knowledge of results is feedback that provides information about the outcome of the skill execution, it suggests how successfully the skill was performed. In most cases, it is external
What is an example of knowledge of result as feedback?
How quickly an athlete covered 100m
How is knowledge of performance a form of feedback?
Refers to information about the pattern of the movement during execution. provided externally
What is an example of knowledge of performance as a form of feedback?
Coach giving technical advice on a tennis serve
What are the four main characteristics of skilled performers that we study?
Kinaesthetic sense, anticipation, consistency, technique
What is kinaesthetic sense as part of the characteristic of a skilled performer ?
Refers to the skilled performers proprioception, which relies on information from various sensors in the muscles and other organs that provide information about body position and movement without the need to see it. Skilled performers can feel the movement and even correct movements mid-performance. Kinaesthesis develops as a direct result of practice, as it develops “muscle memory”.
What is anticipation as part of the characteristic of a skilled performer ?
Anticipation is the skilled performer’s ability to read the play, or his opponent and respond accordingly. It refers to the skilled performer’s ability to predict their opponent’s next move. Good anticipation comes by learning to read an opponent’s body positioning and being familiar with their preference of style or shot. This is particularly important for externally paced skills.
What is an example of anticipation?
An example is when a tennis player anticipates a backhand down the line after reading the body positioning of their opponent. This gives the skilled performer more time to cover the court, cover the shot and decide which return they will select.
What is an example of the effective use of kinaesthetic sense?
An example would be a basketballer adjusting their shot after being fouled to ensure the shot still is successful.
OR
It is particularly evident in sports such as tennis, where players need to return serves in which ball speeds regularly reach 200kph and higher. To enable a successful return of service, the limbs need to respond reflexively and with control
What is consistency?
Consistency refers to the skilled performer repeating good performances. A skilled performer shows more consistency than unskilld performers because they are more used to the skill
How is consistency improved?
Research suggests that psychological skills including imagery, concentration, confidence, self-talk and arousal control are important
underlying factors in gaining greater consistency in performance. Consistency is further improved by exposure to situations where it is needed.
What is an example of consistency in a skilled performer?
Roger Federer and Kobe Bryant are examples of skilled performers who are consistent in their performances.
What is technique as part of the characteristic of a skilled performer ?
Technique refers to the technical aspects of skill execution; the result is efficient and consistent movement. Skilled performers have good technical execution of a skill, which saves energy, and produces better and more consistent results, holds up better under pressure, provides less chance of injury, and is a large determinant of elite success.
What are the advantages of having good technique? (7)
- The movement is economical and will not use more
energy than required. - The movement is skilful, using only the essential muscles.
- The movement is aesthetically pleasing.
wall - The action has a better chance of being successful because good technique has a sound biomechanical
platform. - The action has a better chance of holding up under pressure.
- The performer has less chance of sustaining injury during execution of the movement.
- Good technique is fundamental to achieving at the higher level.
What are objective performance measures? What are some examples of objective sports
These are performance measures which are independent of the observer. This means the measurement is done using something other than the person observing
Sprint times or long jump
What are some examples of objective performance measures? (3)
Stop watch
Electronic timing (in track events)
Measuring tape (for jump events)
What are subjective performance measures? What are some examples of sports which are more subjective in their measure
These are dependent on the observer and based on opinions, feelings and general impressions. They rely more on the observer than independent measures.
Sports such as dance and gymnastics are more subjective as the observer (judge) will give them a score based on how they feel about the performance
Does objectivity run on a continuum?
Yes from highly objective to slightly objective
What does objective mean?
Not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts.
How can observations be made more objective? (4)
Checklists - lists that include elements such as style, technical correctness, sequencing and execution of the required skill
Measurement systems - instruments that accurately discriminate one set of data from another (for example, measuring tapes)
Established criteria - a set of procedures, rules or guidelines that indicate how an activity is to be assessed
Rating scales - a degree of difficulty sheet that awards more marks for movements that are difficult to perform
What is validity?
The honesty of a test - the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure
How do you determine validity?
You need to determine the strength of a relationship between a performance component (such as strength) and a test designed to assess that component (such as the handgrip test)
What are 4 techniques used to enhance the vaalidity of a test?
Judgements about the test items - We assume for a particular item — for example, the ability to jump — that known good performers score better than known poor performers.
Using already validated but similar tests as an indicator - If the relationship between the validated test and the new test is close, then it gives strength to the validity of the new test
Accuracy in prediction - The validity of a test is increased if it is a reliable indicator of future performances.
Ensuring test items contain the component being validated.
What is an example of a valid test?
Using the grip dynamometer as a test of grip strength
How could validity of tests for sports which comprise a large number of movements be improved?
Using a test battery - basically testing a range of skills utilised inside the sport
What is reliability?
Refers to the test’s consistency - the ability of the scorer to produce the same result each time for the same performance
Using the 50m sprint test, how could it be made more reliable?
It is reliable if the same tester repeats the same tst on the same subject under the same conditions and consistently finds very similar results
How can reliability in testing be improved?
By using similar procedures, conditions and equipment as originally prescribed
What is a criteria?
Refers to the standards or qualities that are used for judging the value of a performance . There are two types: personal and prescribed criteria
What is personal criteria?
The preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance. They rely on preconceived attitudes, expectations, opinions and omissible bias
What is prescribed criteria?
These are criteria which are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity
Do spectators and coaches use personal or prescribed judging criteria?
They use personal judging criteria
What is an example of personal judging criteria?
An example of personal judging criteria is a person who walks out of a ballet performance thrilled by what they saw, because it was exactly what was expected, compared to the person who leaves disappointed because they were hoping for something in-particular that was not provided.
What are examples of prescribed judging criteria?
This often comes in the form of a checklist or rating system and helps to objectify subjective measurements.
An example would be the check lists and other prescribed judging criteria used in gymnastics to provide a score for each routine.
How can judgement be made more objective?
Through using prescribed criteria such as checklists, rating scales and degree of difficulty charts to accurately convert appraisal into meaningful measurements
What are more subjective performances? (i.e. what are some examples of subjective sports)
Diving
Gymnastics
Figure skating
What is the role of free weights in promoting strength training?
Can use various ranges of motion such as concentric, eccentric and isometric contractions to provide resistance. Allows for the use of the principle of variety.
Engages stabiliser muscles
However, increased risk of losing control of weight.
What is the role of fixed weights in promoting strength training?
Less technique involved –> less possibility of injury
Fixed resistance machines allow you to isolate specific muscle groups without using other muscles. This can be beneficial for ironing out imbalances, for rehabilitation purposes or even specific muscle growth, adding in another form of stimulation.
Allows for improvement in strength of specific muscle groups
However, these neglect stabiliser muscles such as core.
