Factors Affecting Performance Flashcards
What are the 3 main energy systems?
Alactacid or ATP/PC system
Lactic acid system
Aerobic system
Are all energy systems used simultaneously?
Yes in most situations, but at particular times, certain systems are more dominant. I.e. in a 100m sprint, the ATP/PC system will be more dominant than the aerobic system
What is Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
ATP is a source of energy on a molecular level and allows for energy to be converted from chemical to mechanical energy
What is the Alactacid or ATP/PC system?
It utilises the limited amounts of ATP that our body already has (we have enough for one explosive movement lasting 1-2 seconds). Further muscular work relies on creatine phosphate (or phospocreatine PC/CP) to break down into creatine and phosphate, thus releasing energy in the progress. When ATP breaks down, it breaks into ADP and phosphate. Creatine phosphate releases energy to drive the free phosphates into the ADP, so it can become ATP, once reformed the ATP can break down again, and the cycle continues. However, CP is exhausted within 10-12 seconds.
How is energy created?
When an ATP splits apart into ADP and phosphate
What is the source of fuel of the Alactacid or ATP/PC system?
Uses ATP that is immediately available within the muscle cell. When ATP is broken down into ADP and phosphate, the ADP reacts with PC to produce another ATP and C
How efficient is ATP production in the ATP/PC system?
Fast rate of ATP production, yet there is a limited supply of creatine phosphate so need to recover before producing more energy
What is the duration of the ATP/PC system?
Doesn’t last long due to limited fuel source of CP. ATP supplies are exhausted after 2 seconds of hard work and CP supplies are exhausted in 10-15 seconds depending on intensity.
What is the cause of fatigue for the ATP/PC system?
Depletion of fuel (Creatine phosphate). I.e. the inability of a system to continually resynthesise ATP from CP as CP supplies are quickly exhausted
What are the by products of energy distribution in the ATP/PC system?
No by-products other than heat
What is the rate of recovery of the ATP/PC system?
Recovers as creatine in cells connects to free phosphates again and store them as PC to be used when needed. Takes up to 2 mins for complete recovery. Half is restored at the 30 second mark
What are some examples of sports which utilise the ATP/PC system?
60/100m sprint, discus, javelin
What are some key factors to consider when looking at energy systems (i.e. what to talk about for each energy system in an exam)? (8)
Brief Description
Source of fuel
Efficiency of ATP production
Duration of system
Cause of fatigue
By products
Rate of recovery
Examples
Which energy systems are considered anaerobic, and which aerobic
Anaerobic: ATP/PC and lactic acid energy system
Aerobic: the aerobic system
What is continuous training? (I.e. description, time, intensity, purpose)
Refers to a sustained effort of exercise without rest intervals. It needs to persist for no less than 20 mins, and at a moderate intensity (60-80% of max HR). It’s purpose is to make the body more efficient at using oxygen.
What is the lactic acid energy system and why does it exist
Following 10-12 secs of exercise, CP supplies are exhausted, but thre still needs ATP to be produced. Thus the body utilises sugar supplies in the blood as well as sugar storage supplies (glycogen) in a process called glycolysis to create energy. The lack of oxygen (because it is considered anaerobic) results in the partial breakdown of glucose which produces quick but limited ATP production as well as the by-product of lactic acid.
What is glycogen?
Stored sugar
What is lactic acid?
An acid which is produced by the body when glucose is broken down to ATP in the absence of oxygen. It causes the burning feeling that we have when we exercise too hard (the build up of lactic acid in the bloodstream)
Why is there insufficient oxygen in the lactic acid system?
Because it takes a couple of mins for blood to transport oxygen from lungs to working muscles resulting in a temporary lack of oxygen throughout the muscles
What is the source of fuel for the lactic acid system?
Carbohydrates are the only fuel source, and exists in 2 forms: glucose in blood and glycogen. Relies on anaerobic glycolysis for production of ATP
What is the efficiency of ATP production for the lactic acid system
Produces ATP at a fast rate and can produce a lot of ATP. Around 2 ATP for each glucose molecule broken down. However, this isn’t too good, as it has a max break down of 38 ATP molecules, indicating only 5% of a breakdown
What is the duration of the lactic acid system
30 secs - 3 mins depending on the intensity
What are the by products of the lactic acid system
Lactic acid
What are the causes of fatigue for the lactic acid system
Build up of lactic acid in the muscle. The slow rate of removal of the lactic acid hinders performance. Furthermore, when glucose is broken down, it breaks into lactate (one less hydrogen ion than lactic acid) and hydrogen ions. It is the hydrogen ions which increase the acidity of the muscles which create the fatigue.
What is the rate of recovery for the lactic acid system?
In post exeercise period, lactic acid diffuses from muscles into the bloodstream where it is used as a by product. this process take 30mins - 1hr
What are some examples of the lactic acid system?
200m or 400m run, 50m or 100m swim. Any sport requiring high intensity for longer than 10 seconds
What is the aerobic energy system?
Refers to the energy system that is utilised when there is physical activity lasting more than 3 mins. Oxygen is required to ensure continued muscular contraction. This system utilises glucose, fat and sometimes protein and breaks them down in the presence of oxygen to produce ATP. Lactic acid doesn’t form as oxygen is present.
What is the source of fuel for the aerobic energy system?
Can use carbohydrates, fats and even protein as fuel
What is the efficiency of ATP production for the aerobic energy system?
Very efficient at producing ATP. Produces 38 ATP molecules per glucose molecule
What are the causes of fatigue for the aerobic energy system?
When carb stores deplete, there is a reduction in intensity, since fats need more O2 to produce ATP than carbs, athletes will decrease intensity (thus leading to hitting the wall)
What is the rate of recovery for the aerobic energy system?
Depends on the duration of the use of the energy systeem. If only used for short times, the system recovers quickly as glycogen stores haven’t been depleted. However, if it is exhausted, may need days for recovery. As part of recovery, there has to be the ingestion, digestion of fuels through food, and the process can take 12-48 hrs depending on intensity and duration
soWhat are some examples of the aerobic energy system?
Any sport lasting longer than 3 mins. Includes many team sports such as netball, AFL, Rugby league. Also has individual sports such as the 1500m swimming and marathons.
What are the 4 main types of training?
Aerobic training
Anaerobic training
Flexibility training
Strength training
What is part of aerobic training? (4)
Continuous, fartlek, aerobic interval, circuit
What is part of anaerobic training?
Anaerobic interval
What is part of flexibility training? (4)
Static, dynamic, PNF, Ballistic
What is part of strength training? (3)
Isometric, isotonic, isokinetic
On syllabus: Hydraulics, free/fixed weights and elastic
What is the duration of ATP production for the aerobic energy system?
Can produce ATP continuously for over 1hr as long as there are sufficient fuel sources. Muscle glycogen will deplete after around 1hr of work, resulting in an increasing need for O2 as fats become dominant fuel source
What are the two types of continuous training?
Long, slow distance training
High intensity work of moderate duration (typically at race pace and works 50-90% of max HR)
What is fartlek training?
Fartlek involves varying intensities of effort. It refers to a period of intense work followed by easier efforts, and the aim is to improve anaerobic threshold, however it works both aerobic and anaerobic, ultimately depending on what the workout is. Fartlek is essential for many team sports such as rugby, soccer which require short bursts of speeds, changing directions etc.
What is aerobic interval training?
Involves period of effort and periods of rest. For example, athlete performs 400m run before resting for a minute, and then doing it again. The rest period is essential for differentiating aerobic interval and anaerobic interval training. Aerobic interval has very short rest periods (i.e. 20 seconds) as it doesnt allow for full recovery, thereby increasing stress on aerobic system
How can the overload principle be applied to aerobic interval training?
It suggets that changes in work intensity, number of reps, work time and work-rest ratios can lead to slow overloads which contribute to better gains.
What is circuit training? (and when are there the best benefits)
Refers to arranging activities that require an athlete to spend time at a certain activity before another activity. It can be both anaerobic and aerobic.
There are best benefits when the overload principle is applied, all fitness components essential to a particular sports are developed, and when skills at each station concentrate on attributes needed for a particular game.
What is anaerobic training?
Utilises high intensity work with limited recovery to develop systems that function in the absence of oxygen. Typically short in duration, as well as short rest periods
What are the three types of anaerobic training?
Short anaerobic (less than 25sec - ATP/PC system)
Medium anaerobic (25 sec-1 min - targets lactic acid system )
Long anaerobic (1-2 mins - lactic acid system+aerobic)
What is anaerobic interval training, and what is an example?
Refers to sprint training using maximal effort for short distance. An example of this is High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT)
What is HIIT?
Involves repeated bouts of high intensity and complete rest/recovery at lower intensities. Typically rest is no more than double the work period, but work period has to be near maximal intensity. Aim is to place stress on the anaerobic energy systems
What are the benefits of HIIT? (4)
Improves Vo2 max as well as anaerobic system
Burns calories in short times (burns more calories than aerobic exercise)
Not reliant on equipment
Significant fitness gains in short periods of time
What is the purpose of flexibility training?
Muscle length is required for efficient movement and can be achieved through flexibility training.
What are the benefits of flexibility training? (5)
Prevention of injury
Coordination between muscle groups
Muscular relaxation
Decreased soreness and tightness
Increased ROM around joints
What are the four types of flexibility training?
Static
Dynamic
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF)
Ballistic
What is static stretching?
It is where a muscle is slowly stretched to a position which is held for around 30 seconds. It is performed slowly, taking muscle to a point where there is a stretch without discomfort. It is safe and extensively used in rehab of injury and warmup and cool down
What is ballistic stretching? Give an example
Involves stretching a muscle to its end point and then over stretching by bouncing. Due to the force of the stretch, it could damage muscle fibres. Should only be used by advanced athletes, and movements need to be rhythmical.
An example is touching toes using a bouncing motion
What is PNF stretching?
Involves lengthening a muscle against resistance provided by an external force. It involves creating a static stretch followed by an isometric contraction against resistance, before following more stretching. Useful in rehab as isometric component strengthens muscle fibres
What is dynamic stretching?
Involves rhythmic movements of the major muscle groups used in the activity. Stretching is generally a slow, gentle repetition of movements which are required in the sport or physical activity. Helps reduce muscle tightness as opposed to lengthening muscle fibres
What is strength training?
The use of resistance to be able to create muscular strength. It is also called resistance training
What is strength training divided into?
Isotonic programs: Participants raise/lower or pull/push free weights to contract/lengthen muscle fibres
Isometric programs: participants develop strength by applying resistance and using exercises in which muscle length doesn’t change (i.e. plank)
What are some examples of resistance for strength training? (6)
Body weigght
Barbells/dumb bells
Weight machines
Hydraulic resistance machines
Elastic bands
Water
What are the 5 types of muscular contractions?
Isotonic
Concentric
Eccentric
Isometric
Isokinetic
What is are isotonic contractions?
Causes muscle length to change as tension is developed in the muscle
What are concentric contractions?
Muscle shortens, causing movement at joint
What are eccentric contractions?
Muscle lengthens while under tension, often occurring with help of gravity
What are isometric contractions?
Muscle fibres are activated and develop force, but muscle length doesn’t change i.e. a dead hang
What are isokinetic contractions?
Occurs when tension is developed in a muscle throughout its entire range of motion. As muscle shortens, resistance is increased to maintain constant tension at all joint angles. I.e. doing swimming such as breaststroke as water applies resistance against the movementt
What are some principles that needs to be taken into consideration when trying to develop a strength program? (8)
Target specific muscle groups
Progressive overload
Volume
Variety
Rest
Repetition speed
Repetition numbers
Recovery
What are the six principles of training that we study?
Progressive overload
Specificity
Reversibility
Variety
Training thresholds
Warm up and cool down
How do hydraulic exercise equipment help strength training
This equipment increase their resistance as the exercise movement speed increases i.e. the faster you move the greater the resistance created. This is a specific quality that specifically helps to produce power, making this training method useful for sports such as: power lifting, rugby, basketball etc
They automatically adjust to muscle fatigue so that muscles are 100% worked at all time even if its giving less force.
How do elastics help strength training?
They provide a force against which the muscle has to work against, and offers progressive resistance. Good form of resistance for muscles and uses whole muscle group which might not be the case with free weights
It has a lower amount of force on joints –> reduced risks of injury
Ideal for rehab and people beginning a strength training program
E.g. Lateral banded walks improve glutes, target outer thighs, hip and knee stability and increases ROM
What is progressive overload?
This principle implies that gains in fitness (adaptations) occur only when the training load is greater than normal and it is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur. This prevents the athlete from ‘plateauing’ in their training.
This is because training causes physiological changes which allow body to work at higher intensities (due to adaptations that have occurred in response to training stress). AS body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to it, and eventually gets used to it and will no longer successfully stress the system
What are examples of the use of the principle of progressive overload in aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: Application of overload principle is seen in the heart’s ability to pump more blood to the working muscles and the ability of the working muscles to take up more oxygen. Because of this physiological adaptation, the body can then take on higher intensities, thus the workout should be at a higher intensity To apply it, the time between reps may be decreased or the distances required to be run might increase
Strength: application of the overload principle results in muscle hypertrophy and increased strength. To apply, it the time between reps may be decreased
What is the principle of specificity?
It implies that the effects of a training program are specifically related to the manner in which the program is conducted. It simply means that it needs to make sure that the workout has to target the muscles which are required for the sport.
Specificity applies to the muscle group trained, the speed of training, the intensity of training, the movements of training and the energy systems utilised.
Specificity is that physiological adaptations only occur in response to the stress placed on the body and only to the sections that experience this stress.
What is metabolic specificity and why is it important?
Refers to identifying energy systems or systems most appropriate to the activity and developing these systems through related training procedures
What are some examples of the application of the specificity principle in aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic training: Athlete training for a marathon must target the aerobic system in training. Most activity ensures that the third energy pathway is used for 95% of the time, and the athlete should ensure that the rest and work required stimulate the slow twitch muscle fibres (i.e. make sure not to target the anaerobic system)
Strength training: if increased leg power is required to improve a person’s ability to sprint, the training program must correctly address the speed and number of repetitions, load and time between sets correctly. For example, if the load is too high and the repetitions too low, the program causes bigger improvements to muscle bulk than muscle power.
What is the principle of reversibility?
Simply states that the effects of training programs are reversible, and that when training stops, their adaptations may start to cease. Often referred to as detraining, it applies to all the various training programs such as aerobic, strength and flexibility
In general, if big gains have been made during training, greater losses will follow when training stops because there is more to lose. You must be actively participating in the training program to maintain the training benefits.
The more adaptations that have happened the more you have to lose. So elite level athletes tend to lose more than a recreational athlete
What are some examples of the application of the principle of reversibility on aerobic and strength training?
For aerobic training the effects of reversibility can be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training each week.
For resistance training reversibility can normally be seen in 2 weeks. The effects can be avoided by maintaining 1 session a week at the same intensity as previous training.
What are some examples of the application of the principle of reversibility on aerobic and strength training?
For aerobic training the effects of reversibility can be seen 4-6 weeks after training stops. Reversibility can be avoided by maintaining 2 sessions of aerobic training each week.
For resistance training reversibility can normally be seen in 2 weeks. The effects can be avoided by maintaining 1 session a week at the same intensity as previous training.
What is the Principle of variety?
The principle of variety is ensuring training sessions use multiple training types and methods, as well as exercises within these methods. Variety is needed in training, not only to prevent boredom, but also to ensure complete and full development of fitness.
What are some examples of utilising the principle of variety for aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: variety would include changes to the training method, between fartlek, circuit, continuous, and aerobic interval. We could also utilise different sports such as swimming and cycling (not only running)
Strength: using free weights and machine weights and also adding some elastic or hydraulic training as well. May also use different types of muscular contractions instead of just concentric or eccentric contractions, may turn to isometric contractions
What are training thresholds?
Training thresholds refer to the lowest level at which we can work and still make fitness gains. For improvement to occur, no matter how small, we must work at a sufficient intensity
What are training thresholds determined by?
They are determined by work intensity which is calculated using heart rate (typically measured in a % of MHR (maximum heart rate) )
How can MHR be calculated?
220 beats per minute minus age
What is the aerobic training threshold? (description and %MHR)
The aerobic training threshold is when a person is working at a level of intensity above the aerobic threshold and below the anaerobic threshold. The typical aerobic training threshold (it’s different for some people) is around 65-70% of MHR.
Defined as the point at which lactate begins to rise in the blood above normal resting levels.
What is the anaerobic training threshold?
Also known as the lactate inflection point (LIP) is a point at which further effort is characterised by fatigue.
The anaerobic threshold is the intensity needed in order to produce an adaptation that will improve someone’s anaerobic capacity, normally by increasing the bodies ability to break down and remove lactic acid. The anaerobic training threshold is normally between 80% and 85% MHR and is also known as the lactate inflection point – where blood lactate levels begin to rise rapidly because your body cannot remove it as fast as it is being produced.
WHat is an example of training in the anaerobic training threshold?
Sometimes while exercising in the aerobic training zone, we wish to increase our intensity. An example is to increase the pace during the final half of a 12-minute run. If we increase the pace to a point where the cardiorespiratory system is unable to supply all the oxygen required at that point in time, energy will start to be produced anaerobically. In other words, the body will metabolise glycogen in the absence of sufficient oxygen to fulfil immediate ATP requirements.
What are the benefits of training in the anaerobic training threshold
As a result of the by-product of anaerobic glycolysis, lactic acid starts to be produced. Well trained athletes work on their anaerobic threshold, which improves their tolerance of lactic acid
What are some examples of applications of training thresholds on aerobic and strength training?
Aerobic: Efficiency of cardio system is improved if the athlete works closer to the anaerobic threshold than aerobic threshold. This level increases capacity of the functioning of cardiovascular system and allows the athlete to tolerate rises in lactic acid
Strength: The intensity of strength training can be measured by how many RMs (max reps). Studies suggest that the best maximal strength and power gains can be made using 1-6RM. Training between 8-12RM has been shown to produce significant increases in strength and is the most effective intensity in order to produce muscular hypertrophy. Training between 12-15RM is the best range to significantly improve local muscular endurance.
What is the purpose of a warm up? (4)
Reduce the risk of injury by increasing joint mobility and muscle stretch
Increase body temp and enzyme activity to promote faster and more powerful muscle contractions
Mentally prepare athlete for training
Stimulate the cardiorespiratory system
What is a warm up?
A warm up is the process whereby an athlete goes through a range of exercises in order to get their body ready for competition or training. Warm up exercises move from low intensity to high intensity and from general movements to sport specific movements.
What sort of procedure should a warm up follow? (4)
General aerobic activity such as jogging to raise body temp
Specific flexibility exercise to increase ROM of joints and prevent muscle tears
Calisthenics (i.e. push ups, star jumps etc to increase blood flow to working muscles)
Skill rehearsal (performing movements or skills that will be repeated in the game or in the sport ), this can be achieved through doing sport specific drills such as A skips for spirnts
What sort of procedure should a warm up follow? (4)
General aerobic activity such as jogging to raise body temp
Specific flexibility exercise to increase ROM of joints and prevent muscle tears
Calisthenics (i.e. push ups, star jumps etc to increase blood flow to working muscles)
Skill rehearsal (performing movements or skills that will be repeated in the game or in the sport ), this can be achieved through doing sport specific drills such as A skips for sprints
How long should a warm up be?
At least 10 mins, but for those who require explosive movements such as sprinters, warm up could last for 30 mins
What is the cool down and what is the purpose of the cool down?
Period that follows training session and is the reverse of the warm up. Purpose is to minimise the muscle stiffness and soreness that results from a strenuous training session.
What are some examples of warm ups and cool downs for aerobic training ?
Aerobic: Before aerobic training a warm up should go for 10 min and aim to increase the heart rate to the 70% MHR aerobic threshold slowly. Movements should progress from lower intensities to the higher one and from general movements such as a jog or star jump to more specific movements such as running with a ball at their feet for soccer. After the physical activity the cool down should go for 5-10 minutes, depending on the duration of the session. Exercises could include a jog around the field passing a ball and then go into some walking in various directions and then some stretching of the leg muscles for the soccer players.
What physiological adaptations to training do we study?
Resting heart rate
Stroke volume and cardiac output
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity
Haemoglobin level
Muscle hypertrophy
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres
Why are there physiological adaptations in response to training?
This is because during training, the body makes adaptations or adjustments to the level of stress imposed on them. These adaptations allow for it to function more comfortably at existing levels of stress and respond more efficiently to new levels of stress
Why is the resting heart rate higher for a trained athlete than an untrained athlete?
This is due to the increased efficiency of the cardiovascular system, and particularly, a higher stroke volume, thus training decreases resting heart rate. Furthermore, there is a shorter recovery period required for those who are more trained as it is more efficient, and because their heart rate will only rise a bit
What is stroke volume?
It is the amount of blood ejected by the left ventriclee during a contraction. It is measured in mL/beat
What causes an increase in stroke volume?
It is a long term effect of endurance training. This is because training causes the left ventricle to fill more completely during the relaxation phase of cardiac contraction than an untrained heart. There is also an increase in blood circulation following training, leading to more blood being able to enter the ventricle, this causes a stretch in the ventricular wall which enables contractions that are more powerful.
What is cardiac output? (CO)
It is the volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute, and it is determined by multiplying heart rate and stroke volume
Why does cardiac output increase with increased training?
This is because trained athletes have a higher stroke volume, as well as a relatively high heart rate (although lower compared to other untrained athletes as they develop slower heart rates), yet their extremely high stroke volume increases the cardiac output
What is lung capacity?
Lung capacity is the amount of air that the lungs can hold
How does lung capacity change after training?
The vital capacity (amount of air that can be expelled after maximum inspiration) increases slightly, and residual volume (the amount of air that cannot be moved out of the lungs) decreases slightly.
Overall, total lung capacity remains relatively unchanged
What is haemoglobin level?
Haemoglobin is contained in the red blood cells of the body, and refers to the level of the haemoglobin in the bloodstream
How do haemoglobin levels change due to training?
Haemoglobin levels typically increase as a result of training, and this increases it’s oxygen carrying capacity. A way of increasing haemoglobin levels is also to train at high altitudes.
Why do haemoglobin levels increase as a result of training?
This typically occurs because the body adapts to carrying more oxygen as it attempts to meet the demand of the certain exercise (especially if it is endurance)
What is muscle hypertrophy?
It is a term that refers to muscle growth together with an increase in the size of muscle cells. While length remains unchanged, the size of the muscle becomes larger due to an increase in mass and cross-sectional area. Hypertrophy is induced by training programs that stimulate activity in muscle fibres causing them to grow.
Does training cause muscular hypertrophy? If so, why?
Yes. It does so because training causes structural changes in muscle fibres, ultimately leading to hypertrophy. This is a direct result of mass increases in:
Actin and myosin filament (thin protein filaments producing muscle action)
Myofibrils contractile (elements of skeletal muscle)
Connective tissue (tissue that surrounds and supports muscle)
What is required to encourage muscular hypertrophy? (i.e. utilisation of what principles may encourage muscular hypertrophy)
Training needs to address the overload principle, if not, eventually the muscles may undergo atrophy. Principle of specificity is important in targeting certain muscles or regions where hypertrophy is required.
What is the extent of hypertrophy affected by? (4)
Muscle type (fast or slow twitch) - Typically the fast titch fibres are genetically larger compared to red muscle fibres.
Type of stimulus - Hypertrophy is enhanced through progressive overload, resistance training, using low rep with high resistance yields best results
Regular training (if not it may result in atrophy)
Availability of body hormones (i.e. testosterone)
What is oxygen uptake measured by?
VO2 Max (maximum oxygen uptake) and is measured in x mL/kg/min
Does oxygen uptake increase in well trained athletes?
Yes it does. It is higher than average people
Average vo2 max for boys vs girls? (17 yo)
Boys: 45mL/kg/min
Girls: 40mL/kg/min
What can VO2 max be measured by?
It can be measured by using bicycle ergometry in a lab or field tests such as the 12 min run or the beep test
What are slow twitch muscle fibres?
Slow twitch muscle fibres or type I fibres (aka red muscle fibres) contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance type activity
What are fast twitch muscle fibres?
Fast twitch muscle fibres or type II fibres (aka white fibres) reach peak tension quickly and are recruited for power and explosive movements such as throwing and lifting
Can training change the type of fibres?
No it can’t, it can only change the cross sectional area
What are slow twitch muscle fibres?
Slow twitch muscle fibres or type I fibres (aka red muscle fibres) contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance type activity
Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during sustained activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming. These fibres are efficient in using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres.
How do muscle fibres adapt to training?
While all muscles shorten and lengthen during movement, the bulk of the work is performed by muscles most suited to the specific type of activity. White muscle fibres benefit most by anaerobic training, such as sprints, short intervals and resistance training. Red muscle fibres benefit most from endurance type activities that engage the aerobic system.
How do slow twitch muscle fibres work during exercise?
Slow-twitch fibres contract slowly and release energy gradually as required by the body during sustained activity such as jogging, cycling and endurance swimming. These fibres are efficient in using oxygen to generate fuel (ATP), making them resistant to fatigue but unable to produce the power of fast-twitch fibres.
What adaptations does aerobic training cause in muscle fibres? (5)
Hypertrophy - Slow twitch fibres are recruited, which experience some growth
Capillary supply - An increase of up to 15% in number of capillaries surrounding muscle fibres, thus increasing muscle efficiency
Mitochondrial function - mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell, where ATP is manufactured. Aerobic training increase the number of mitochondria, as well as increase their size and efficiency
Myoglobin content - Myoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the cell membrane to mitochondria and storing it for use when necessary. Endurance training significantly increases myoglobin content
Oxidative enzymes - Level of activity of oxidative enzymes increase making production of energy more efficient
When are fast twitch muscle fibres used?
In explosive activities such as weight lifting, javelin throwing and sprinting. These fibres have high anaerobic capacity as they can contract quickly
What are the two types of fast twitch muscle fibres?
Fast twitch A fibres
Fast twitch B fibres
What are Fast twitch A fibres?
These are intermediate fast titch fibres which can produce a high output for lengthy periods because they have the ability to draw on both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism to support contraction
What are Fast Twitch B fibres?
These are classic white fibres which possess high amounts of glycolytic enzymes and drawing energy solely from anaerobic sources.
What adaptations does anaerobic training cause in fast twitch fibres? (4)
ATP/PC supply - fuel supply and efficiency with the fuel being used increases
Glycolytic enzymes - These increase improving the functioning within cells
Hypertrophy - Has the potential to be considerable amounts of hypertrophy
Lactic acid tolerance - Training increases ability of FT fibres to tolerate lactic acid, allowing anaerobic performance to be sustained for longer periods of time
What is motivation?
An internal state that activates, directs and sustains behaviour towards achieving a particular goal.
What are some ways of increasing the level of motivation in players?
Recognising individual effort
Supporting belief in one’s ability
Instilling a good work ethic
Providing positive reinforcement and encouragement
What are the two diff ways of classifying motivation?
Positive or Negative
Intrinsic or extrinsic
What is positive motivation?
Positive motivation is when individual performance is driven by previous reinforcing behaviours. It occurs when the athlete performs because they have received rewards or certain incetives for similar actions in the past and they realise that continuing to perform as required results in additional rewards.
Positive motivation is sustainable
What are some examples of positive motivation?
Providing incentives
Developing personal progress charts
recognising achievements
Handling mistakes constructively
How should a coach implement positive motivation?
establish a gradual sequence of challenges for the athlete. Challenges are positive and motivating whereas threats are negative and destructive in the long term
What is negative motivation?
This is where an athlete may be inspired to perform more from a fear of the consequences of not performing than as a result of a motivated behaviour. This means that there is an improvement in performance out of fear of consequences
What are some disadvantages of utilising negative motivation to drive an athlete to perform?
It may result in indecision, lack of creativity, fear of risk taking, and susceptibility to choking
Generally, negative motivation may cause a player to always opt for a safe play and not to take risks where the reward could be a victory but is outweighed by consequence of failure
Is positive or negative motivation better?
Positive is better in most cases, although negative motivation can be utilised in some cases.
What is intrinsic motivation?
This is a type of motivation that comes within the individual. It is a self-propelling force that encourages athletes to achieve because they have an interest in a task or activity and enjoy learning and performing the movements.
This typically originates from inner feelings and may serve to drive a need to succeed, accomplish or perform at the best level. It is self sustaining and self-reinforcing because effort and personal accomplishment become its own reward
Is intrinsic motivation preferred?
Yes this is because effort and personal accomplishment because acts as its own reward, and these rewards are much stronger driving forces than anything else extrinsic
What is flow experience?
Characterised by a very high level of concentration, to the extent that an individual is completely absorbed in the task, and when in this zone, performance is maintained without conscious effort
Is flow experience important to intrinsic motivation?
Yes it is. It represents the highest level of internal motivation
What is extrinsic motivation?
This refers to motivation that comes from sources outside a person, such as parents and coaches. It tends to have an outcome or ego orientation.
Extrinsic motivation is seen in many forms such as praise, material rewards and financial remuneration.
What are the short comings of external motivation?
May create increased pressure/stress
External motivation is not consistent and don’t last long
No passion created
What are the advantages of external motivation
It creates a desire to chase after goals or dreams
Decently effective at increasing short term motivation
What are the advantages of internal motivation?
Greater persistence
Enhanced engagement
Greater enjoyment and satisfaction
What are some advantages of negative motivation?
Fear is a powerful motivator which can motivate you to perform well if kept at moderate amounts
What is anxiety? What are some of it’s symptoms? in sports
It is a psychological process which is characterised by fear or apprehension in anticipation of confronting a situation perceived to be potentially threatening .
It typically causes a fight or flight response
Characterised by feelings of weakness, ‘butterflies’, elevated HR, muscle tension, physical or mental paralysis
How do sports contribute to anxiety?
Because of the unpredictable nature of performance or the uncertainty of the outcome. Any sporting contest can give rise to anxiety when one’s perceived ability does not measure up to the demands of the task.
Also, anxiety can also be entrenched in deep expectations, especially if one feels that they cannot be fulfilled
What is trait anxiety?
Trait anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each individual. It is evident in how we respond to daily situations, of which many are new and cause concern.
Trait anxiety refers to anxiety as a characteristic of a person, so that the person is generally anxious about unknown outcomes, it is a part of who the person is. People have various levels of trait anxiety
What is state anxiety?
State anxiety refers to anxiety that arises in a particular situation. Everyone experiences state anxiety, but the stimulus can vary. In sport state anxiety may rise when an athlete is in a high-pressure situation and is called upon to perform. Examples of this include: serving for the match in tennis, taking a penalty shot in soccer, converting a try in rugby, or shooting a free throw in basketball.
Another example is that when a spider comes up to a person, the individual may experience anxiety, because it is normal, but different people will experience different anxiety to the situation which creates anxiety to anyone
What are the negative effects of state anxiety?
They can contribute to physical and mental paralysis, preventing performance or a task which may otherwise be routine and has been repeated many times.
An example, may include false starting at the start of important swimming or track races due to the pressure of the situation
What are some ways to address state anxiety?
Have the athlete better understand the nature of the anxiety, confronting its causes and refusing to submit to controlling fears which may arise because of it.
Some anxiety techniques may include relaxation, slow breathing, changing pattern of thinking and engaging in thought distraction
What is stress?
Stress is the non-specific response of the body to a demand placed on it. Stress can be defined as any type of change that causes physical, emotional or psychological strain.
a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation
What is stress characterised by? (5)
increased blood supply to skeletal muscles
more oxygen to the lungs
increased glucose production to provide extra fuel
increased sweat production to cool the body
tightened muscles to prepare the body for action.
Can stress be both real and imagined or only real?
Can be real and imagined. Thinking about a certain situation that causes concerns will also cause stress. Thinking about something that makes us uncomfortable can bring about symptoms such as increased heart rate and sweating
What are stressors?
Factors that produce stress
What are some stressors in practice and competitive sporting environments? (i.e. what can they develop from( (4)
personal pressure — individual pressure imposed by the desire to win, achieve or fulfil goals
competition pressure — pressure exerted by opponents on the field of play
social pressure — pressure from coaches, parents, peers and others who are held in esteem by the athlete
physical pressure — the pressure of having to perform learned skills under the demands of competition.
What are some traits that are important in containing anxiety?
Positive expectations and confidence
Self assurance and self belief
What are some ways to cope with stress? (4)
practising relaxation techniques
developing concentration skills that require focusing on the immediate task rather than on the perceived reaction to it
developing confidence
planning strategies to cope with the situation
What is arousal?
Arousal is a specific level of anxiety and can be experienced prior to and during a performance.
Arousal is the level of activation and alertness experienced by a performer.
When is arousal good?
It is good for performing a skill very successfully when the level of arousal is optimal for that task and individual.
For example, running the 100m sprint, an individual may complete a time worse than expected which could be attributed to low arousal.
What does the inverted U hypothesis suggest?
It illustrates a connection between arousal and performance (with arousal on the x-axis and performance on the y axis, and the shape being an inverted parabola).
Suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for any performance, and is typically in between the low and high levels of arousal (at the peak of the inverted U hypothesis)
What are features of low arousal?
Performance may suffer from factors such as lack of motivation, disinterest, poor concentration and the inability to cope with distractions
What are features of high/over arousal?
This is where the athlete is unable to perform the required movements with precision because they are excessively tense and unable to concentrate
Feelings would be characterised by anxiousness and apprehension, reflecting excessive concern about performance –> Increased muscular tension and mental confusion
Does the optimal level of arousal stay the same for all skills?
No the optimal level of arousal varies from one skill to the next. Generally, when difficult tasks involving few muscle groups are involved such as archery and putting in golf - levels of arousal don’t need to be too high to be optimal.
However, activities that are easier to execute or involve large body movements such as running, require an increase in level of arousal for performance to be optimal
What do optimal arousal levels depend on? (7)
Self expectation
Expectation by others
Experience
Financial pressures (does the individual’s livelihood depend on the performance?)
Level of competition
Degree of difficulty
Skills finesse
What are the 4 psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety that we study?
Concentration/attention skills (focusing)
Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery
Relaxation techniques
Goal setting
