Core 1 IQ2: What are the priority issues for improving Australia's health?

Question 1

What are some examples of the differences in the level of health of particular groups in our generally affluent society? (2)

Answer 1

These differences exist in terms of:

Unequal distribution of some illnesses or conditions throughout the population (across different demographics)

Health inequities; unjust impact on the health status of some groups due to social, economic, environmental and cultural factors such as income, education

Question 2

What are the three (general) determinants of health?

Answer 2

Sociocultural determinants

Socioeconomic determinants

Environmental determinants

Question 3

What is included in sociocultural determinants of health (5)?

Answer 3

Family
Peers
Media
Religion
Culture

Question 4

What is included in socioeconomic determinants of health? (3)

Answer 4

Employment
Education
Income

Question 5

What is included in the environmental determinants of health? (3)

Answer 5

Geographical location
Access to health services
Access to technology

Question 6

What is the difference in life expectancy for ATSI people compared to non-ATSI peoples?

Answer 6

There is a difference of 10 years, and this has continued throughout the years leading up to 2023.

Question 7

WHat is the trend in life expectancy for ATSI in prior years?

Answer 7

It has been increasing slowly.

Question 8

What is Cardiovascular Disease (CVD)?

Answer 8

Refers to damage to, or disease of the heart, arteries, veins and/or smaller blood vessels.

Question 9

Why has CVD been identified as a health priority area?

Answer 9

Because it is a major health and economic burden on Aus. It accounted for 42, 300 deaths (25% of all deaths) in 2019, according to AIHW

Question 10

What subgroups are more susceptible to death from CVD?

Answer 10

Males are more likely than females to die from the disease, and ATSI people die from the disease at twice the rate of the total population

Question 11

What is the nature of Cardiovascular disease?

Answer 11

It mainly affects the circulatory system. It has 3 major forms; coronary heart disease, stroke and peripheral vascular disease. It is most evident as stroke, heart attack, angina, heart failure and peripheral vascular disease.

Atherosclerosis is the underlying cause of most of these conditions

Question 12

What is Atherosclerosis?

Answer 12

It is the build up of fatty and/or fibrous material on the interior walls of arteries. This build up hinders flow of blood to the body’s tissues and also acts to increase blood pressure.

Atherosclerosis can occur in any artery of the body, but it is of greatest threat to an individual’s health when it is present in the arteries lading to the brain, eyes or legs or the heart

Typically occurs in patches known as atheroma or plaque and is characterised by the presence of cholesterol

High blood pressure, smoking and a diet rich in fat can accelerate the development of atherosclerosis

Question 13

What is the major function of the heart, and what happens when the individual has atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries?

Answer 13

Major function of the heart is to supply the body with oxygen rich blood. To perform continual intense exercise, the heart requires a supply of Oxygenated blood, which is received from the coronary arteries. The presence of atherosclerosis in the coronary arteries reduces the needed supply of blood, depriving the muscle of oxygen, and hindering the functioning of the heart

Question 14

Wha is Arteriosclerosis?

Answer 14

The hardening of arteries, and it is a degenerative disease that occurs during ageing, and it is a form of atherosclerosis, as it develops as fatty or fibrous deposits build up and arteries become harder and less elastic

Question 15

What is coronary heart disease?

Answer 15

Also known as ischaemic heart disease, it refers to damage or disease in the heart’s major blood vessels. The usual cause is the build-up of plaque. This causes coronary arteries to narrow, limiting blood flow to the heart. Typically manifests as a heart attack or angina

Question 16

What is a heart attack known as? (3)

Answer 16

myocardial infarction, coronary thrombosis and coronary occlusion

Question 17

What is a heart attack caused by?

Answer 17

The complete closure of a coronary artery by atherosclerosis, and can also occur hen blood clot forms and blocks a narrowed artery.

The efficient functioning of the heart relies on a regular oxygenated blood flow, so the cessation of the flow to any part of the heart results in tissue death.

Question 18

What can a heart attack cause?

Answer 18

Sudden death or impaired function of the heart muscle, the area of damage may also be minimal and the individual can resume everyday activity. During the healing process following a heart attack, nearby arteries grow new branches to supply the damaged tissue

Question 19

What are 5 symptoms associated with heart attacks?

Answer 19

Sudden collapse or unconsciousness

Shortness of breath, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating

Chronic pain, lasting for hours or days

Acute pain, extending to the shoulders, neck, arms and jaw

Pain felt as a burning sensation in the centre of the chest, between the shoulder blades or behind the breast bone

Question 20

What is an angina pectoris? (or angina)

Answer 20

Medical term used to describe the chest pain that occurs when the heart has an insufficient supply of oxygenated blood. Thus, it’s not really a disease but a symptom of oxygen deprivation

Question 21

What is an angina caused by?

Answer 21

Generally caused by coronary atherosclerosis, where the narrowed arteries allow enough oxygenated blood to flow to the heart to enable everyday activity, but chest pain or tightness occurs when the heart becomes overloaded by exertion, excitement or overeating

Question 22

What is a stroke?

Answer 22

A stroke refers to damage to the brain from interruption of its blood supply. It is known medically as a cerebrovascular accident

Question 23

What is a stroke caused by?

Answer 23

Occurs when the blood supply to the brain is interrupted by a clot / atherosclerosis or when a burst blood vessel haemorrhages into the brain

Question 24

What is a risk factor for a stroke, why?

Answer 24

Hypertension is a risk factor for a stroke, as blood vessels directly damaged due to high blood pressure tend to either rupture more easily or result in an aneurysm (which could lead to a rupture)

Question 25

What are the symptoms of stroke?

Answer 25

Sudden confusion

Trouble speaking

Lack of coordination, dizziness

Difficulty walking

Paralysis on one side of the body

Question 26

what is the acronym to identify stroke?

Answer 26

F - Face
A - Arms
S - Speech
T - Time

Question 27

What is heart failure?

Answer 27

Heart failure occurs when the heart muscle doesn’t pump blood as well as it should. It is a reflection of the heart’s inability to cater for the demands placed on it during every day life. It doesn’t mean that the heart has stopped beating

Typically occurs because the heart is unable to compensate for; atherosclerosis, heart attacks, high blood pressure, defective heart valves, and more

A critical symptom is repeated breathlessness

Question 28

What does left heart failure do?

Answer 28

Decreases blood flow, reduces exercise tolerance, weakness, confusion, increased pressure in lungs –> difficulty breathing, enlargement of heart to compensate for he problem

Typically caused by a heart attack

Question 29

WHat does right heart failure cause?

Answer 29

Causes pressure to build up in the right atrium, so blood cant return to the heart from the body in the usual way, causes issues with the legs and thee liver

Question 30

What is peripheral vascular disease?

Answer 30

Peripheral vascular disease is the reduced circulation of blood to a body part other than the brain or heart

Question 31

What causes peripheral vascular disease?

Answer 31

Result of reduced blood flow to the legs and feet, usually due to atherosclerosis and/or arteriosclerosis. Given a slowed flow of blood to the leg muscles, walking results in a cramping feeling

9/10 of people with this are smokers

Question 32

What are symptoms of peripheral vascular disease?

Answer 32

Tingling sensations in the feet and tightness (cramping in the legs and buttocks, particularly after exercise. It may lead to gangrene

Question 33

What should be included when discussing the extent of cardiovascular disease in Aus?

Answer 33

Should discuss the mortality, morbidity and how many people it has affected, its trends

Question 34

How many people over 18 years old have hade 1 or more conditions related to heart, stroke or vascular disease in 2017-18? (i.e. morbidity)

Answer 34

1.2 Million Australians - 6.2% of adult population (NEED TO CHECK THIS STAT)

Question 35

What is the trend in CVD?

Answer 35

Over 35 years from 1980 to 2015, there has been a steady decline in CVD death rates. Death rates have fallen from 560 to 151 deaths peer 100 000 people

Question 36

What % of deaths in Aus is caused by CVD? Whats the trend in CVD mortality?

Answer 36

Cause 27% of deaths in Aus in 2021. Death rates from CVD has declined considerably over recent decades, showing signs of continuing to fall.

Question 37

What is the general mortality trend for CVD

Answer 37

Declining overall, however th decline in younger age groups have slowed relative to improvements made in older age groups

Question 38

What is the cause of the declining prevalence of CVD? (2)

Answer 38

Reduction in the levels of risk factors; implementation of prevention strategies have led to a reduction in smoking levels, increased monitoring of hypertension levels and diet modifactions

Improved medical care and treatment; which have ultimately led to reduced mortality and improved quality of life

Question 39

What are the risk factors for CVD which CANT be changed? (3)

Answer 39

Risk factors increasing the chance of CVD and mortality from CVD include:

A family history of heart disease. People with family history of heart disease are more likely to develop CVD

Gender. The cardiovascular disease death in men aged up to 50 years is higher than in women. This is largely due to hormones, as oestrogen is thought to be a protective factor for CVD

Advancing age; The risk of CVD increases with age

Question 40

What are 4 risk factors for CVD which can be changed?

Answer 40

Smoking; The risk of heart attack and stroke is doubled by heavy smoking, risk of sudden cardiac death is also higher.

Raise blood fat levels; the higher the blood cholesterol levels, the higher risk of heart disease. A diet high in fat can raise cholesterol levels

High blood pressure; The risk of heart disease, stroke and heart failure all increase with hypertension. It can overload the heart and blood vessels and speed up atherosclerosis

Physical inactivity; the association of inactivity with obesity, high blood pressure and high fat levels makes it a significant contributor to the development of heart disease

Question 41

What are 5 protective factors, reducing the chance of developing CVD?

Answer 41

Regular physical activity

Maintaining healthy eight

Avoiding exposure to tobacco and tobacco smoke

Consuming a diet low in salt

Lo consumption of alcohol

Question 42

What should we discuss when talking about the determinants of CVD?

Answer 42

Should discuss sociocultural, socioeconomic and environmental determinants

Question 43

What are the sociocultural determinants of CVD? (4)

Answer 43

People with a family history of CVD are more at risk

Asians are less prone to getting CVD due to a generally low-fat diet

ATSI people more at risk as they are associated with have lower socioeconomic status and lower edu levels

Media exposure (Cultural factor) to the effects of smoking on health have lead to a reduction in smoking rates and a declining trend in CVD

Question 44

What are the socioeconomic determinants of CVD? (2)

Answer 44

People with a low socioeconomic status or who are unemployed have higher death rates because income can limit health choices, such as purchasing fresh fruit and vegetables and using exercise facilities.

People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services.

Question 45

What are the environmental determinants of CVD? (1)

Answer 45

People living in rural and remote areas are more at risk as thy tend to have less access to health info, health services and tech, such as electrocardiogram monitors

Question 46

What 7 groups are at risk of developing CVD?

Answer 46

Tobacco smokers

People with family history of CVD

People with high fat diets

People with high blood pressure

Males

People aged over 65 years

Blue-collar workers (labourers and tradespeople) - may have higher levels of smoking, alcohol consumption and high fat diets

Question 47

Is the prevalence of stroke (i.e. a cardiovascular event) higher in men or women? STats

Answer 47

1.6% in males

1.1% in females

Question 48

Which age groups does CVD affect the most?

Answer 48

65+ have had 71% of people having a stroke

Question 49

WHat % does stroke conttribute to hospitalisations from CVD?

Answer 49

11% of CVD hospitalisations and 0.6% of total hospitalisations

Question 50

How many new cases of canceer were there in 2022?

Answer 50

About 162, 200 new cases of cancer were diagnosed in Aus

Question 51

Why has there been an increasing trend to 2008 in cancers?

Answer 51

Largely due to a rise in the number of diagnosed prostate cancer in males and breast canceer in females. This trend may have been the result of increased prostate specific antigen testing and the introduction of national cancer screening programs

Question 52

What should you discuss when talking abut the nature of a preventable chronic disease?

Answer 52

What is it?

What are the different forms of this disease?

Potential causes of this disease

Question 53

What is cancer?

Answer 53

Refers to a diverse group of several hundred diseases with a common feature - the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal body cells. It involves a mutation and is believed to originate from a single cell whose genetic material has been influenced or damaged by some foreign agent.

The changed cell divides and multiplies uncontrollably, transferring its damaged genetic material to its offspring cells. Eventually, a tumour develops and cells that would normally work together for the benefit of the tissue continue to multiply independently, starving other nearby cells of nourishment. This group of cells is now referred to as a neoplasm.

Question 54

What are the two different types of tumours?

Answer 54

Benign tumours

Malignant tumours

Question 55

What are benign tumours?

Answer 55

These aren’t cancerous. They generally grow slowly, surrounded by a capsule that leads to control their spread. Usually the cure is surgical removal. They may cause some damage by robbing surrounding tissue of necessary nutrients or interfering with the function of vital organs, but generally aren’t too harmful

Question 56

What are malignant tumours?

Answer 56

These are cancerous. Without the restraint of a controlled capsule, they can spread to other parts of thee body, starve surrounding tissue of necessary nutrients and invade healthy tissue. These can cause sickness and death

Question 57

What are metastases?

Answer 57

These are secondary or new tumours. They may develop some distance from the original malignant tumour, because the malignant tumour has the ability to invade surrounding tissues, blood vessels and lymphatic channels, spreading into either the bloodstream or lymph fluid, and travelling to the other parts of the body

Both metastases and malignant tumours are capable of spreading to many sites throughout the body, affecting the whole body with the disease

Question 58

What are Carcionogeens?

Answer 58

These are agents that are known to cause cancer. However, the precise causes of cancer is a mystery.

Question 59

What do carcinogens include?

Answer 59

Chemicals, pollution, radiation, cigarette smoke, dietary factors and alcohol

Question 60

What are 4 different classifications of cancer and their sites?

Answer 60

Carcinoma; Skin; membranes lining the respiratory, gastrointestinal and urinary tracts; the breasts

Sarcoma; bones, cartilage, muscles

Leukaemia; blood forming organs such as bones the liver and the spleen

Lymphoma; infection fighting organs (glands and the spleen)

Question 61

Is cancer the leading cause of death in Aus?

Answer 61

YES it is the OVERALL leading cause of death (as it encompasses breast, prostate, lung and more different cancers which contribute to a high mortality rate)

Question 62

What are the risk factors for lung cancer? (3)

Answer 62

Tobacco smoking

Occupational exposure to carcinogns such as asbestos

Air pollution

Question 63

What are the risk factors for breast cancer? (5)

Answer 63

A family/personal history of the disease

Obesity

Early onset of menstruation

A high fat diet

Late menopause

Question 64

What are the risk factors for skin cancer? (5)

Answer 64

A fair skin that burns rather than tans

High number of hours of bright sunlight at place of residence

Prolonged exposure to the sun, especially as a child and adolescent

Number and type of moles on the skin

Fair or red hair and blue eyes, combined with residence in high sun exposure areas

Question 65

What are the leading risk factors causing the highest mortality rates from cancer? (5)

Answer 65

Tobacco - 30% of all deaths from cancer

Diet - 10-70%

Sexual reproductive patterns - 7%

Occupational factors - 4%

Alcohol factors - 4%

Question 66

What are the protective factors for lung cancer? (2)

Answer 66

Avoid exposure to tobacco smoke

Avoid exposure to hazardous materials such as asbestos

Question 67

What are the protective factors for breast cancer? (3)

Answer 67

Consume a high diet in fruits and vegetables, and low in fat

Have regular mammograms if over the age of 50 years old (government allows for free mammograms for any woman over the age of 50yo, looking to get screened for breast cancer)

Practise self examination (i.e. paying attention to own body and if something feels off)

Question 68

What are the protective factors for skin cancer? (2)

Answer 68

Avoid excess exposure to strong sunlight

Reduce exposure to the sun by wearing a hat, sunscreen, protective clothing and sunglasses

Question 69

Which groups are at the highest risks of developing lung cancer? (4)

Answer 69

Cigarette smokers

People exposed to occupational or environmental hazards such as asbestos

People working in blue collar occupations (labourers / manual work)

Men and women aged over 50 years old

Question 70

Which groups are at the highest risks of developing breast cancer? (6)

Answer 70

Women aged over 50 years old

Women who have late menopause

Women who start menstruating at an early age

Obese women

Women who have never given birth

Women who have a direct relative with breast cancer (i.e. mother or sister)

Question 71

Which groups are at the highest risks of developing skin cancer (4)

Answer 71

People with fair skin

People in outdoor occupations

People who spend too much time in the sun without protection such as hats and sunscreen

People in lower latitudes (UV intensity is greater at lower latitudes)

Question 72

What are the environmental determinants for cancer?

Answer 72

People living in rural and remote areas are more at risk, as they tend to have less access to health information, health services such as Pap smears, and technology, such as breast screening devices.

Question 73

What are the socioeconomic determinants for cancer? (4)

Answer 73

People in occupations involving repeated exposure to carcinogens, such as asbestos, are more at risk of lung cancer.

People working outdoors, such as lifeguards, are more prone to getting skin cancer.

Those with a low socioeconomic status or who are unemployed have higher death rates as income can limit health choices, such as purchasing fresh fruit and vegetables and using exercise facilities.

People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services.

Question 74

What are the sociocultural determinants for cancer? (3)

Answer 74

People with a family history of cancer

Incidence of lung cancer and cervical cancer higher in ATSI peoples as they tend to have hihger smoking levels and less access to health services

If your family practises health-promoting behaviours, such as adopting healthy eating habits, the risk of cancer is reduced.

Question 75

What is the trend in incidence of cancer?

Answer 75

It is the only major cause of death in Aus which has been increasing in incidence for both sexes. The most significant increases in the past two decades have been for breast cancer, skin cancer and melanoma (malignant skin cancer), as well as prostate cancer

Increasing from 383/100 000 to 503/ 100, 000

Question 76

What are the main reasons for the increase in incidences of cancer? (4)

Answer 76

Ageing of the population

Better detection of cancer

New diagnostic tech and screening programs

Better reporting of cancer

Question 77

What is the most common form of cancer?

Answer 77

Non-melanoma skin cancers (these can be self detected and removed by a GP)

Question 78

What are the most common life-threatening cancers for men

Answer 78

Prostate cancer (24, 217), melanoma of the skin (10, 374), colorectal cancer (8, 300 cases), lung cancer (7, 707)

Coming from AIHW 2022

Question 79

What are the most common life threatening cancers for women?

Answer 79

Breast cancer (20, 428), colorectal cancer (7, 413), melanoma of the skin (7, 382), lung cancer (6, 822)

Question 80

What is the trend in deaths from cancer per 100 000 since the 1980s?

Answer 80

From 209/ 100, 000 to 145/ 100, 000

Question 81

What % of cancer deaths do males account for?

Answer 81

Accounts for 56% of deaths in 2022, (i.e. more than females with 44%)

Question 82

What is the estimated increase in cancer cases in Aus?

Answer 82

Increase by around 22% from 2021 to 2031

Question 83

Does the risk of developing cancer increase with age?

Answer 83

Yes it dos, so Aus with the ageing population and decreased total mortality rates can expect the number of cancer cases to continue to rise

Question 84

How many hospitalisations from cancer?

Answer 84

1.3 million cancer related hospitalisations - accounting for 1/9 of all hospitalisations in Aus

Question 85

What is the avg survival rate of those with cancer? Females and males as well? What is the trend from the 1990s?

Answer 85

70% chance of surviving for at least 5 years after diagnosis - Females: 72%, males: 69% - 2014-2018 stats

It has increased from the 1990s from around 52% to 70%

Question 86

What percentage of Australia’s population is over the age of 85? How has it increased?

Answer 86

Grown from 0.5% in 1970 to 2.1% of total population in 2020

Question 87

What is the expected increase in Australia’s elderly population?

Answer 87

Itis expected to increase to 4.4% in 2066 (85+)

Question 88

What is the percentage increase in Australia’s elderly (aged 65 +)

Answer 88

Consisted of 8.4% in 1970 to 16% of total population in 2020

Question 89

What is healthy ageing?

Answer 89

the process of developing and maintaining the functional ability that enables wellbeing in older age

It is a process that includes various behaviour and choices that affect health such as regular physical activity, good dietary choices, regular family contact and social activities. The goal of healthy ageing is to enable the elderly to maintain their health into old age, allowing them to contribute and engage in society better

Healthy ageing involves people reducing their risk factors for disease, and preventing the progression of the disease after its onset and reducing morbidity and mortality

Question 90

What are the benefits of healthy ageing?

Answer 90

Enables an increase in economic growth because of the ability to continue working, but also decreases the use of health services by the elderly, who are the largest users of health care system

Ultimately improves QOL and decreases diasbility adjusted life years

Question 91

How does the government seek to promote healthy ageing? (i.e. what does it aim to do to help healthy ageing - the goals ) (4)

Answer 91

Prevent disease

Reduce illness and illness periods

Maintain economic contributions

Maintain social participation

Question 92

How does the Aus gov help reach the 4 goals mentioned (preventing disease, reducing illness, maintaining eco contributions, maintaining social participation etc)? (5)

Answer 92

Helping people to make good healthy choices and develop healthy behaviours throughout each stage of life

Health care professionals can provide advice about lifestyle, managing disease and avoiding complications

Improving the physical balance of an elderly person, to help avoid falls and fractures in the elderly

Attempting to keep elderly in employment as it contributes to the EG, and also allows for the elderly to maintain a social aspect to their life, providing meaning

Promoting health and social services in the community to allow elderly to remain in their own homes for as long as possible

Question 93

What happens as Australia’s population continues to age?

Answer 93

There is an increased population living with chronic disease and disability, especially because these diseases and disabilities are more prevalent in the elderly

Decreased QOL and independence

Question 94

What % of Australians have had a chronic health condition (there is a certain list but cbb)?

Answer 94

80% of older Australians (65+) have had at least one selected chronic health condition in 2021

Question 95

What % of older Australians (65+) have had 3 or more chronic health conditions in 2021?

Answer 95

28%

Question 96

What is the most common chronic condition among older people? WHat %?

Answer 96

Arthritis is the most common condition with older people, with 49% - 1.8 million people reporting that they have it

Question 97

What are the negative effects of the elderly having chronic health conditions?

Answer 97

It will mean that they have to take more time off work, and are less likely to be employed full time, being more likely to be unemployed

Question 98

WHat % of people aged 65-74 report having chronic pain?

Answer 98

20%

Question 99

What age group (s) have the highest rates of disability

Answer 99

65-69, 70-74 years of age

Question 100

What % of those elderly permanently in residential aged care had a mental health or behavioural condition?

Answer 100

In 2019, 87% of those people had at least one mental health condition

Question 101

What % of elderly permanently in residential aged care has a diagnosis of depression?

Answer 101

49%

Question 102

What is the trend in the prevalence of diabetes in elderly people (65+)?

Answer 102

from 8.5% in 1995 to 16.8% in 2017-18

Question 103

When discussing chronic health issues with the elderly, what health issues should be discussed?

Answer 103

Diabetes
Arthritis
Mental health
Chronic pain

Question 104

What initiatives have been implemented by the gov to address the needs of a growing number of older AUstralians? (4)

Answer 104

Increased residential aged care places

More funding for dementia care in aged care

Incentives for people to remain in their homes

Attracting, retaining and training aged care workers

Question 105

What is the concern for elderly who are suffering poor health?

Answer 105

That they are unable to contribute to the workforce, leading to general shortages of labour

Question 106

How has the gov taken action in response to the concern of less elderly being able to contribute to the workforce, and unable to access steady income after retirement??

Answer 106

A means tested pension to provide income for people after retirement

Aus employees required to provide compulsory super cover for all eligible employees

Voluntary, private superannuation contributions and other forms of private savings made by employees are encouraged

Question 107

What is the impact of a growing and ageing population on the health system and services?

Answer 107

A growing and ageing population increases the demand for health services and creates workforce shortages in the health service as an increase in the workforce would be required. There is concern that the ageing population will increase public spending on health and place an unsustainable strain on the health system trying to serve the increasing cliental. This is especially because an increase in age typically leads to an increase in health conditions and disability

There is an increase in health conditions and disability such as arthritis, mental health conditions, dementia, diabetes and cancer. There is also an increased visiting of health services

In the last 10 years, the number of people living in aged care facilities has risen by 20%, reflecting the growing and ageing population, causing much of the workforce to have to go into that sector to be able to care for all the elderly

Question 108

What is the impact of growing and ageing population on the health service workforce?

Answer 108

The increase in aged care facilities also require an increase in workforce training in aged care and issues surrounding chronic diseases and disability. An ageing population requires an adequate health workforce. This relates to not only the number in the workforce, but their distribution and skills as well. Of particular concern is the increased demand for workforce in the aged care sector and specialists.

There will also be an increased pressure on the economy to help provide for the elderly. There is an increased burden on the working class to pay for retirement programs for the elderly by the gov, there is also a decreased labour workforce

Question 109

Are the elderly more likely than those in 15-24 years to see a GP and medical specialist?

Answer 109

Yes they are massively more likely (97.2% vs 72.2% for GP and 57.4% compared to 28% for medical specialist)

Question 110

What is a way of addressing the growing demand for health services and workforce shortages?

Answer 110

Focus on efficient coordination of care. The elderly have higher rates of multiple diseases and disability and coordinated care and a focus on safe use of medication would decrease the demand for health services and workforce shortages

Question 111

What is the Living longer, living better aged care reform package?

Answer 111

In 2012 the Australian government introduced the Living Longer, Living Better aged care reform package, which aims to address the attraction, retention, remuneration, education, training and career development of aged care workers, in order to address workforce shortages.

Question 112

What is a carer?

Answer 112

A carer is someone who provides assistance in a formal paid or informal unpaid role for someone due to illness, disease or disability

Question 113

What does care for the elderly involve?

Answer 113

Involves activities such as bathing, cooking, home upkeep and adminstering medications for the elderly

Question 114

What is the main source of informal unpaid carers? WHat sacrifices do they have toi make?

Answer 114

Family members, particularly children or a spouse. They may have to decrease their workload to provide care, and thus results in a worsening economy, as there is less hours being worked

Question 115

Where do many carers come from?

Answer 115

Charities, religious institutions or the government

Question 116

Do older Australians contribute to the society? If so, how?

Answer 116

Yes they do. Caring and volunteering is recognised as productive activities. Australians aged 65+ contribute $7.56 bn in social production through volunteering according to USYD in 2021. Thus, their volunteering work does play a significant part in our economy despite what many people think

They can also provide support for relatives and friends who are aged, sick, or living with a disability. They provide regular care for grandchildren, enabling parents to contribute to the economy

Question 117

What is the ageing population caused by?

Answer 117

Low fertility levels and increased life expectancy at birth

Question 118

What are some examples of volunteer organisations helping out the elderly? What are some examples of what they do?

Answer 118

Anglicare, Alzheimer’s Australia NSW, Anglican retirement villages; these volunteers often cook, drive, do housework, visiting or help the elderly shop.

Question 119

What % of people aged 55-69 informally volunteered for 21hrs or more?

Answer 119

25.2%

Question 120

What is the trend in the rate of volunteers for those who are elderly?

Answer 120

They have been increasing since the 1990s to 2010, but then 2010-2014, the rate of volunteers fell from 36% to 31% of people 18+, and this falling rate needs to be turned if Aus is going to care for the needs of the growing and ageing population

Question 121

What are the 3 types of cancers we have to study?

Answer 121

Skin, lung and breast cancers

Question 122

What is the most common cancer in Aus in terms of incidence? Why?

Answer 122

Skin cancer. This is largely due to prolonged exposure to UV radiation. It’s incidence

Question 123

What is the ranking for skin, breast and lung cancer as the most common cancers? (estimated according to aihw cancer report, table 5.2) (have to double check)

Answer 123

Breast Cancer (top if ignoring non-melanoma skin cancer) - 20 030 cases

Melanoma of the skin (harmful skin cancer) - 16, 878 (note if including non-melanoma in skin cancer, it will be the top)

Lung cancer - 13, 810 cases

2021

Question 124

What are the cancers causing the most death in 2021? of the cancers we study

Answer 124

Lung Cancer - 27/100000
Breast cancer - 16 / 100000
Skin Cancer - no results

Table 8.2

Question 125

What are the risk factors for lung cancer? (4)

Answer 125

Cigarette smoking (the main cause of lung cancer)

Second hand smoking

exposure to carcinogens in the work place

Exposure to asbestos

Question 126

What are the risk factors for breast cancer? (7)

Answer 126

Although there is no known cause of breast cancer, there are a number of factors increasing the risk, including:

Being female

Early menstruation (at an early age)

Late menopause

Late first pregnancy/not having children

A diet high in fat/obesity

Family history

Being old `

Question 127

How has the gov been trying to decrease the mortality rate for women with breast cancer?

Answer 127

Encouraging regular breast self examination and mammographic screening every two years for women aged over 50 years to be able to prevent it early

Question 128

What are the risk factors for skin cancer? (6)

Answer 128

A lighter natural skin colour

Certain types and a large number of moles.

A family history of skin cancer.

A personal history of skin cancer.

Older age.

Lack of application of sunscreen

Question 129

How has the gov/cancer council been trying to reduce mortality of skin cancer

Answer 129

Introducing the slip slop slap campaign, which provides lots of advertisements for many, which is catchy, reminding people to take part in protective behaviours such as applying sunscreen when going out in the hot sun

There has also been sunscreen at outdoor pools

Question 130

What are mental health issues?

Answer 130

A wide range of conditions that affect mood, thinking and behaviour

Question 131

What is the nature of mental health problems and illnesses?

Answer 131

Includes a wide range of mental disorders, the most prevalent being: anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders. These mental health illnesses can range in severity

They have a significant impact on people’s ability to function socially, emotionally and cognitively. People with mental health problems and illnesses are often isolated and experience stigma because of their condition

Question 132

What can mental health problems lead to? (part of nature of mental health)

Answer 132

It may lead to drug abuse, physical neglect and early pregnancy (as forms of poor health choices)

Question 133

What groups are at risk of mental health issues/suicide? (8)

Answer 133

People who have experienced recent crisis or trauma

People under stress

People with chronic depression

Elderly people

People affected by drugs/alcohol

Indigenous people

Teenagers

Young LGBTIQ people

Question 134

What are the sociocultural determinants for mental health problems? (4)

Answer 134

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples are more at risk of suicide and depression, due to higher levels of drug and alcohol abuse in household, compared to other Australians.

People with a family history of mental illness are more at risk.

People who have had a falling out with peers, or who have been exposed to
bullying, are more at risk.

People who have had broken or dysfunctional families

Question 135

What are the socioeconomic determinants for mental health problems?(3)

Answer 135

People with a low socioeconomic status or who are unemployed have higher rates of mental health problems, as these groups tend to engage more in substance abuse, compared to those of a higher socioeconomic status.

People in a high stress job

Poor up bringing and lower socioeconomic status including homelessness where further harsh treatment often results

Question 136

What are the environmental determinants for mental health conditions? (1)

Answer 136

Rural, young males are at a higher risk of suicide than urban, young males because
they have less access to support services and fewer job prospects.

Question 137

What are risk factors for anxiety and depression? (Individual - 2, Family - 2, Peers, School, Community - 3)

Answer 137

Individual: Risk taking behaviours (such as taking alcohol and taking drugs –> alter chemical makeup of brain), Family history of mental disorders

Family: Family conflict including domestic violence, inconsistent or unclear discipline and lack of warmth by parents

Peers - poor pear role models that aren’t inclusive or use drugs, alcohol and violence

School - Bullying or discrimination

Community - Neighbourhood violence or crime and exclusion, social and cultural discrimination and racism, poor access to recreational activities and support services

Question 138

What are protective factors for anxiety and depression? (Individuals - 2, Family, Peers - 2, School - 2, Community - 2)

Answer 138

Individuals: Engaging in physical activity, regulation of emotions

Family: Supportive family life, free from conflict

Peers: Positive peer role models, health promoting behaviours amongst peers

School: Policies on behaviour and bullying, Supportive relationships with teachers and peers

Community: Access to support services, safe and inclusive community

Question 139

How many Australians aged 16-85 experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life? 2021

Answer 139

8.6 million have experienced a mental disorder at some time in their life (44% of the population)

Question 140

What are the top 3 leading mental health issues for men? 16-85

Answer 140

harmful use of alcohol - around 2 million

Social phobia (anxiety disorder) - 963 000

PTSD - 695 400

2021

Question 141

What are the top 3 leading mental health issues for women? 16-85

Answer 141

Social phobia (anxiety disorder) - 1.7million

PTSD - 1.4 million

Affective disorders such as Depressive episodes 1.28 million

2021

Question 142

What were the most common mental health issue in the year of 2020-21? (Top 3)

Answer 142

Anxiety disorders - social phobia (17% of Australians)

Affective disorders such as depressive episodes(mood disorders) - 8%

Substance use disorders (alcohol and drug dependence) - 3% of population

Note this is the population in 2020-21

Question 143

Are women or men more likely to experience anxiety and mood disorders?

Answer 143

Women

Question 144

Has the prevalence of major depressive disorders among children changed?

Answer 144

Yes it has changed, it has increased relatively drastically

Question 145

What is one of the larger proportions of causes of mental illness in people aged 15-24?

Answer 145

Mental and substance use disorders accounted for a large proportion of this

Question 146

What should be discussed when looking at the extent of mental illness? (6)

Answer 146

Amount of people who have experieinced mental health issues

Causes of mental illness in men and women in 2020-21

which gender is more likely to experience anxiety and mood disorders

Suicide rates for genders and age

most common mental health issues

Depression in women vs men

Question 147

What is suicide and self harm?

Answer 147

Suicide is a deliberate act of self inflicted injury with the intention of killing themselves

Self harm/self injury refers to the behaviour of a person deliberateluy causing pain or damage to their own body without suicidal intent. It is a response to emotional or psychological distress

Question 148

What is the trend in overall suicide deaths overall? Since 1980s to 2021

Answer 148

11.6 / 100 000 in 1984

12 / 100 000 in 2020

Overall it has been fluctuating around thayt mark in recent decades, however, suicide death rates seem to rise with social events such as the great depression, WW1 and WW2

Question 149

What is the trend in suicide death rates for men since 1987?

Answer 149

Close to peak during 1987 - 23.3 / 100 000

2021 - 18.2

Good to see that it is going down, which can be attributed to the lowering of stigmatisation around the topic

Question 150

What is the trend in suicide death rate by females since 1987?

Answer 150

1987 - 6 / 100 000

2021 - 6.1 / 100 000

Has been around the same, and is lower than the men suicide rate as they are more likely to seek help

Question 151

Which age group for males had the lowest suicide rates and what stats?

Answer 151

15-19 , in 2021 the suicide rate was 13.1 per 100000, which has increased from the less than 10 / 100000 throughout 1907-1970

Question 152

WHich age group for males had the highest suicide rates?

Answer 152

85+ at around 36.4 / 100 000 in 2021

Question 153

WHat is the lowest and highest age group for suicide for females?

Answer 153

4.3 for 75-79 years

9.5 for 50-54 years

Question 154

WHat age groups is suicide the leading cause of death for? (2018-2020)

Answer 154

15-24 and 25-44

Question 155

What are the symptoms of mild depression? (4)

Answer 155

Poor self esteem

Loss of interest

Decreased energy

Feelings of sadness

Question 156

What are the symptoms of major depression? (5)

Answer 156

Feelings of despair and hopelessness

Loss of interest in life

Poor concentration

Difficulties with decision

Inability to feel pleasure

Question 157

Which gender is more likely to get depressive episodes and anxiety?

Answer 157

Females are more likely for both of these

Question 158

What are health inequities?

Answer 158

The unjust impact on the health status of some groups due to social, economic, environmental and cultural factors such as income and education

Question 159

What are the 2 differences in the level of health of particular groups in our affluent society?

Answer 159

Unequal distribution of some illnesses or conditions throughout the population

Health inequities

Question 160

What are the major indicators of health inequities?

Answer 160

Incidence and prevalence of disease and different rates of sickness, hospitalisation and death

Question 161

What is the trend in the median age at death for ATSI peoples?

Answer 161

Increased from 56.5 in 2010 to 61 in 2020

Question 162

What is the difference in life expectancy of ATSI men vs women in 2015-17?

Answer 162

Males - 71.6 years, females - 75.6 (ABS 2018)

Question 163

What is the suicide rate for ATSI people vs non-Indigenous?

Answer 163

Twice the rate, and fifth leading cause of death among ATSI people

Question 164

What is the leading cause of deaths for ATSI?

Answer 164

Cancers (overall)

Question 165

WHat is the life expectancy gap between ATSI and non-ATSI?

Answer 165

Around 10 years

Question 166

WHat is the leading 3 causes of burden of disease for ATSI?

Answer 166

Mental and substance use disorders (23% of burdens)

Injuries (12%)

Cardiovascular disease (10%)

Question 167

What is burden of disease?

Answer 167

Burden of disease measures the impact of living with illness and injury and dying prematurely

Question 168

What should you discuss when looking at the nature and extent of the health inequities of ATSI people? (4)

Answer 168

Burden of disease

life expectancy for men and women vs normal population

Leading causes of death

suicide rates

Question 169

What are the sociocultural determinants of health for ATSI?

Answer 169

Family, peers, religion, culture and media

High rates of domestic violence, and child abuse/neglect is high for people aged 5 and 44. ATSI people are more likely to be imprisoned, causing fractures in the family unit . Almost half of ATSI families with dependent children were one parent families, leading to a lack of structure and broken families

The culture is also one of drugs and alcohol in many rural areas, and as many ATSI are raised up in these communities, they are largely influenced by this culture, causing many to follow suit

There is also a disempowerment from many years of oppression and discrimination from non-Indigenous Australians. There is also a certain stereotype associated with Indigenous Australians as petrol sniffers and good for nothing; discrimination in workplace etc bc of the media

Question 170

What are the socioeconomic determinants of health for ATSI?

Answer 170

Education, employment and income

As of 2016, only 51% of ATSI people were employed, compared to 76% of non-ATSI Australians. ATSI households were also more likely to be in the lowest income brackets. 65.9% of Indigenous also graduated with a year 12 certificate, which has increased. These bad socioeconomic determinants such as unemployment and poor levels of education lead not only to poor behavioural choices but also to poorer mental health conditions

Question 171

What are the environmental determinants of health for ATSI?

Answer 171

Geographical location and access to health services and tech

Amongst ATSI, access to health services is poorer than other Australians. They have difficulty accessing health services and also have a stronger distrust of medical professionals, with many refusing not to visit a GP despite having a health condition

1/5 ATSI people are living in run-down houses, which contribute to a worse environment, especially because there may be unsanitary practices, no electricity –> lack of access to education etc.

Question 172

What is the role of individuals in addressing the health inequities of ATSI peoples?

Answer 172

Individuals are empowered by a number of interventions to make informed choices about their own behaviour and encouraged to reduce risk behaviours and increase protective behaviours. Each individual is responsible to promote their own health and the health of others

(Individual in this case meaning ATSI person)

Question 173

What is the role of communities in addressing the health inequities?

Answer 173

Communities and leaders of ATSI people were and are still involved in the design and implementation of many of the closing the gap programs and interventions.

Can also utilise programs such as Tangentyere Night Patrol (to reduce incarceration rates), as well as Clean Slate without prejudice

Question 174

WHat is the role of the gov in addressing the health inequities of ATSI peoples?

Answer 174

The Australian Government’s main role is larger health promotion and funding. The $805 million Indigenous Chronic Disease Package, is an example, and aims to improve the way the health-care system prevents, treats and manages the chronic diseases that affect many Indigenous Australians. The goal is to reduce key risk factors for chronic disease in the Indigenous community (such as smoking), improve chronic disease management and follow-up, and increase the capacity of the primary care workforce to deliver effective care to Indigenous Australians with chronic diseases (Department of Health 2013a).

Closing the Gap report which sets aims to help close various health inequities through the application of various COAG programs, involving mass funding of various programs

Question 175

What is the role of the individual in addressing the health inequities of people in rural and remote areas?

Answer 175

Individuals can begin to address these inequities by focusing on good decision making and taking responsibility for their own health and the health of those around them. Actions such as remaining in school, or seeking to attend university either online or even at rural or remote based universities such as Charles Sturt will improve their knowledge, employment opportunities and income levels and help individuals make informed choices about their health and health care used. Individuals can also help promote health in their family and friends by encouraging good health choices, such as not smoking or reducing alcohol intake. These decisions reduce the risk factors to health and will help address the health inequities.

Question 176

What is the role of the community in addressing the health inequities of people in rural or remote areas?

Answer 176

Communities can address the health inequities by providing relevant health care and support services. This includes the development of Multi Purpose Service Programs that often connect with community services, and the development of community health centres with the services they offer.

Communities need to do more to attract and retain health professionals in their communities. They must communicate and collaborate closely with government agencies and health departments to encourage qualified professionals to serve and support rural areas.

Question 177

What is the role of the gov in addressing the health inequities faced by people in rural/remote areas?

Answer 177

The government funds many rural and remote programs to assist in the delivery of health care to rural and remote living people. These include: the royal flying doctor service, which provides: health care clinics, medical evacuations, provide medical chests and remote consultations. The government has instituted the Rural and Remote General Practice Program to help increase the number of GPs available in these areas. They also help fund other services such as SARRAH, who provide allied health services.

Also investment into technology which could be accessed in the rural areas.

Question 178

What are the sociocultural determinants of the inequity of health in remote/rural areas

Answer 178

The sociocultural determinants of health include: family, peers, religion, culture and media.. In rural and remote areas the proportion of ATSI peoples in higher than other areas and contributes to the poorer health outcomes for rural and remote living people. The poorer indicators of health also influence children being brought up in rural and remote areas. Children raised in families that have higher smoking rates, have higher rates of second hand smoke and are more likely to become smokers. Children of overweight and obese parents are more likely to be overweight or obese. This also applies to lower rates of activity, higher risky drinking, and cholesterol levels.

Especially due to the fact that those in rural areas are more likely to be smoking (1.7 times more than urban) and drinking

Question 179

What are the socioeconomic determinants of the inequity of health in remote/rural areas?

Answer 179

There are a variety of socioeconomic determinants of health for rural and remote living people. Socioeconomic factors include level of education, income and type of employment. Rural and remote living people are disadvantaged regarding education and employment opportunities, income and access to goods and services. This means that they know less about health and the bad things associated with alcohol and cigarettes.

They are more likely to work on farms, in transportation or mines, which are hazardous occupations with higher rates of tobacco and alcohol use. People living in rural and remote areas have a lower average income and poorer levels of education – leading to lower health literacy. On the positive side, rural and remote living people have higher levels of social cohesiveness and participation in volunteer work.

People living in rural and remote areas have
higher costs of living, in terms of food and fuel
prices, although housing costs are lower. This
means that the diet of residents in rural and
remote areas may be affected because of insufficient
access to reasonably priced fruit and vegetable

Question 180

What are the environmental determinants of the inequity of health in remote/rural areas?

Answer 180

They also have poorer access to health care compared to people living in metropolitan zones due to distance, cost of fuel, and availability of transport. This lack of access is increased by a shortage and uneven distribution of medical services in rural and remote areas, compared to metropolitan areas. Studies indicate that one factor is an attitude among men in rural and remote areas that injury and illness is part of normal life, and they are less likely to seek help for chronic conditions.

In rural and remote areas the number of GP’s employed is rising, but is still lower that the rates in major cities. This limits access to general medical services. There is also a poorer distribution of medical specialists and medical technology. Use of medical services is also poorer than major cities, including some cancer screening programs such as bowel cancer.

Question 181

What are the main inequities for those living in rural and remote areas? (8)

Answer 181

Higher rates of diabetes and related deaths

Higher rates of suicide

Higher rates of transport accidents

Higher burden of stroke

Poorer Oral health

Be physically inactive and overweight

Drink alcohol in hazardous quantities

Become smokers

Question 182

How many people live in Rural and remote areas?

Answer 182

7 million people - 28% of people

Question 183

How much more likely are people in very remote areas going to die than those in major cities?

Answer 183

1.5 times

Question 184

Is the life expectancy of those in rural and remote areas different to those in metropolitan cities?

Answer 184

Yes, those in metropolitan cities have higher life expectancies

Question 185

What is the potential avoidable deaths of those females and males in very remote areas?

Answer 185

181 / 10 000 - females

235 / 10 000- males

Question 186

Do those in rural/remote areas have a higher prevalence of health risk factors than major cities?

Answer 186

Yes, in various categories such as exceeding alcohol limit, smoking and more

Question 187

Do those in rural/remote areas have a higher prevalence of chronic health conditions than major cities?

Answer 187

Yes, in various categories such as asthma, arthritis, mental health conditions , diabetes

Question 188

What are the social and economic impacts on the community, individuals and gov as a result of an ageing population

Answer 188

s

Question 189

What are the socioeconomic determinants for cancer? (4)

Answer 189

People in occupations involving repeated exposure to carcinogens, such as asbestos, are more at risk of lung cancer.

People working outdoors, such as lifeguards, are more prone to getting skin cancer.

Those with a low socioeconomic status or who are unemployed have higher death rates as income can limit health choices, such as purchasing fresh fruit and vegetables and using exercise facilities.

People with low education levels are more at risk as poor education is linked to poor health choices and less knowledge about how to access and use health services.