explanations of nicotine addiction: learning theory

Question 1

learning theory definition

Answer 1

behaviourist explanation based on the mechanisms of classical and operant conditioning, such as positive and negative reinforcement

Question 2

cue reactivity definition

Answer 2

cravings and arousal can be triggered in, for example nicotine addicts when they encounter sues related to pleasurable effects of smoking. examples of such cues include the social situations in which they have smoked previously

Question 3

what type of conditioning can explain addiction smoking

Answer 3

operant conditioning

Question 4

role of positive reinforcement in role of nicotine addiction

Answer 4

nicotine is positively reinforced as the consequence is rewarding to the individual so the behaviour is more likely to occur again

Question 5

how is nicotine a powerful reinforcer (positive reinforcement)

Answer 5

-physiological effects on dopamine reward system in the mesolimbic pathway, the drug stimulates the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, producing a mild euphoria which the smoker finds rewarding and positively reinforces with smoking behaviour

Question 6

how did Koob and Le Moal describe reinforcement in smoking addiction (positive reinforcement)

Answer 6

positive reinforcement can therefore explain the early stages of smoking addiction –> how people start smoking in the first place

Question 7

what is the role of negative reinforcement in smoking addiction

Answer 7

continued dependence

Question 8

what happens if nicotine is stopped being taken (negative reinforcement)

Answer 8

acute withdrawal syndrome, with several unpleasant symptoms. these include behavioural effects (eg agitation and disturbed sleep), cognitive effects (eg poor concentration) and mood disturbances (eg- anxiety and depression). these make it hard for the smoker to abstain for long so these effects are reduced or eliminated by smoking again

Question 9

how does withdrawal syndrome have a role in operant conditioning of smoking (negative reinforcement)

Answer 9

smoking again is negatively reinforcing as stops the unpleasant stimulus of withdrawal syndrome. this can lead to smokers becoming skilled at anticipating the symptoms of withdrawal and avoiding them altogether by regulating nicotine intake

Question 10

what type of reinforcer is the pleasurable effect of smoking

Answer 10

primary reinforcer as it is intrinsically rewarding (not learned) due to effects on the brain’s dopamine reward system

Question 11

what are secondary reinforcers

Answer 11

any other stimuli that are present at the same time become associated with the pleasurable effect. these are called secondary reinforcers as the take on properties if the primary reinforcer and become rewarding in their own right

Question 12

what are secondary reinforcers in smoking addiction

Answer 12

-environment –> as often occurs in certain environments such as pubs
-certain people
-ritual elements such as a favourite lighter and feeling of the packet and smell
-enjoy feeling of smoke hitting the back of the throat as associated with pleasurable effect of nicotine

Question 13

why do reinforcers act as cues in smoking addiction

Answer 13

presence produces a similar psychological and physiological response to nicotine itself. cue reactivity is this response

Question 14

what many elements does cure reactivity have

Answer 14

3

Question 15

what are the 3 elements of cure reactivity

Answer 15

1-subjective desire or craving for a cigarette which is self-reported
2-physiological signs of reactivity, including autonomic responses such as heart rate and skin temperature
3- objective behavioural indicators such as how many draws are taken on a cigarette and how strongly

Question 16

strength of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction - research support

Answer 16

-support from animal studies
-substantial body of research with non-human animals confirming role of operant conditioning in nicotine addiction. Levin et al found when rats could lick two water spouts. one gave an intravenous dose of nicotine and the other had no reward, the rats licked the nicotine waterspout significantly more often. number of licks increased substantially over 24 sessions –> suggests effects of nicotine positively reinforce self-administration in rates, implying there is a similar mechanism in humans

Question 17

strength of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction - cue reactivity

Answer 17

-support from research with humans for the effect if cues
-Carter and Tiffany conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies into cue reactivity. typically, the studies presented dependent and non-dependent smokers with images of smoking related cues. self-reported desire was measured along with indicators of physiological arousal such as heart rate. Dependent smokers reacted most strongly to cues as showed an increase in arousal and reported cravings to smoke (physiological and psychological) even when nicotine was not present –> shows dependent smokers learn secondary associated between smoking-related stimuli and pleasurable effects of smoking

Question 18

strength of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction - real-world application

Answer 18

-nicotine treatment programmes based in classical conditioning principles
-aversion therapy uses counterbalancing to treat nicotine addiction by associating the pleasant effects of smoking with an aversive stimulus such as a painful electric shock. some research studies have found this to be effective such as Smith’s (1988) who gave participants and averise electric shock whenever they engaged in smoking related behaviours. after a year, 52% were still abstaining, a much higher proportion than the 20-25% of people who continued not to smoke after deciding to give up –> treatments based in learning theory can save NHS resources, improve health and ultimately save lives

Question 19

limitation of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction - counterpoint to real-world application

Answer 19

-study did not use a control group that had a placebo
-the comparisons made in the study (proportion of people who continued not smoke after deciding to give up) is not a valid measure of effectiveness. on this weak basis, many other treatments could claim to be beneficial. there is also evidence from higher-quality studies that benefits of aversion therapy are short-lived, especially compared to other therapies (Hajek and stead 2001) –> suggests counterconditioning may not be an effective method of addiction treatment

Question 20

evaluation of of learning theory as an explanation for nicotine addiction - animal research

Answer 20

-it is reasonable to use non-human animals to study nicotine addiction in humans. a reason is that the conditioning mechanisms involved in nicotine addiction are the same in humans and other mammals (according to behaviourists). there are ethical reasons why animals are used rather than humans in some addiction research
-however, human-animal comparisons are flawed because nicotine addiction in humans is more complex than in rats. cognitive factors influence the learning processes in human addiction which means humans think more about reinforcers in a way that other mammals do not. there are also ethical reasons not to use animals in addiction research