Experiments

Question 1

Independent variable

Answer 1

The variable that the researcher changes

Question 2

Dependent variable

Answer 2

The variable that is measured

Question 3

Extraneous variable meaning and issue

Answer 3

Any variable that could affect the DV that is not the IV
These could be an issue as they affect the ‘internal validity’

Question 4

Extraneous or confounding?

Answer 4

When extraneous variables are not controlled by the experimenter, they become confounding variables that can damage the validity of the experiment (the experimenter does not notice the extraneous variable until before or after the experiment)

Question 5

Situational variable:
Definition
How to control

Answer 5

Features of a research situation that may influence participant behaviour eg
- Order effects- (controlled by ABBA) The order the conditions are completed in could affect the results.
Practice effect means you do better in the second condition because you’ve practiced
Fatigue/ boredom means you do worse in the second condition because you are tired or bored

How to control situational variables
i. Standardise everything eg., noise levels time of day lighting instructions
ii. ABBA- Counterbalancing- half the participants complete condition A then B, the other half complete B then A

Question 6

Participant variable:
Definition
How to control

Answer 6

(individual differences) The way in which each participant varies from the other, and how this could affect the results eg.,
Mood
IQ
Anxiety
Concentration
How to control participant variables
Depends on experimental design can use matched pairs

Question 7

Investigator effects
Definition
How to control

Answer 7

-The experimenter unconsciously conveys to participants how they should behave (Experimenter Bias)
-The experimenter is often unaware of the influence they are exerting, but they have influence, nevertheless

How to control investigator effects:
Double blind design:
Both the participant and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aims and/or hypothesis
Also the experimenter may be unaware which variable the participant is involved in

Inter-rater reliability
Independent raters rate same behaviour as researcher- check for agreement

Question 8

Demand characteristics
Definition
How to control

Answer 8

Demand characteristics-
If participants know/ guess the experimenter’s intention they may change their behaviour accordingly
They may think they are doing this to be helpful- but its not actually helpful,

How to control demand characteristics:
Single blind design
The participant is unaware of which condition they are in or the
research aims. This prevents the participants from seeking
clues about the aims and reacting to them
Deception
Lying about the aims of the study and/ or using distracting questions

Question 9

Internal validity

Answer 9

A validity concerned with what goes on inside a study. Is the researcher measuring what is intended. Includes control of variables to ensure changes in DV are solely due to IV.

Question 10

Hypotheses meaning

Answer 10

Precise and testable statement of prediction about the outcome of an experiment. States the relationship between the variables to be investigated

Question 11

Experimental/ alternative hypothesis

Answer 11

Predicts there will be a difference/ relationship
This is either directional or non directional. Directional predicts the direction of the results but non-directional does not. Non directional is also known as two tailed as the results could go either way, and directional is known as one tailed.

Question 12

Null hypothesis

Answer 12

Predicts there will not be a difference/ relationship

Question 13

Four elements of a good hypotheses

Answer 13

All conditions mentioned
Operationalised (measurable)
Future or present tense
Difference (bar chart) or relationship (line graph)

Question 14

Experimental design

Answer 14

the way in which participants are allocated to different condition in an experiment for comparison

Question 15

Questionnaire definition

Answer 15

Set of written questions – designed to collect information. Can discover what people think or feel (no guessing work like observations). Always pre-determined (structured). Can provide either qualitative data or quantitative data. It is used to assess the DV.

Question 16

Structured interview

Answer 16

An interview where the questions are decided in advance.

Can be easily repeated because the questions are standardised.

Different people can be compared due to the standardised questions

Answers are easier to analyse due to being predictable

Question 17

Unstructured interview

Answer 17

The interview starts out with general aims and sometimes questions, the interviewee’s answers guide subsequent questions

More detailed information can be obtained

Requires interviewer with more skill because the interviewer has to develop more questions

Questions may lack objectivity due to the quick nature of creating the questions

More expensive due to the need for experienced interviewer

Interviewer bias

Question 18

Naturalistic vs controlled

Answer 18

Naturalistic - takes place in the setting or context the target behaviour would usually occur
Controlled - there is some control over variables to observe effects and control extraneous variables

Question 19

Overt vs Covert

Answer 19

Overt - participants aware that the observer is present/ Covert - the participants unaware that the observer is present

Question 20

Participant vs non participant

Answer 20

Participant - observer joins in with participants and behaviour being observed
Non participant - observer stays separate and observes from a distance

Question 21

Structured vs unstructured observation

Answer 21

Unstructured observation- accounts of data in rich detail, researcher writes down everything they see
Structured observation- specific acts that make up the target behaviour that are clearly defined, they allow the researcher to quantify their observations using a pre determined list of behaviours and sampling methods

Question 22

Sampling methods

Answer 22

Event sampling- counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target individual or group
Time sampling- recording a behaviour within a pre established time frame. Eg making a note of what a specific player is doing in a football match for 1 minute every 10 minutes (using a behavioural checklist)

Question 23

Pilot Study

Answer 23

A pilot is a small-scale run of the actual investigation and may involve only a few participants
Pilots can be run for experiments, self report measures and observations.

Psychologists conduct pilot studies to test the experiment’s effectiveness and make improvements before the larger-scale version.
This allows them to identify issues early, which can then be rectified, saving time and money in the long run
Any part of the study could be measured, for instance the validity, how long it takes, if the instructions are too complicated etc

Question 24

The 3 experimental designs

Answer 24

Repeated measures
Independent groups
Matched pairs

Question 25

Social desirability bias

Answer 25

Participant answers in a way they deem socially acceptable

Question 26

Population

Answer 26

A group of people who are the focus of the research is interest from which is smaller sample is drawn

Question 27

Sample

Answer 27

A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population, and his presumed to be representative of that population.

Question 28

Generalisation

Answer 28

The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.

Question 29

Random sample

Answer 29

All members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected.

A complete list of all members of the target population is made. All of the names are assigned a number. The sample is generated through a random number generator.

Good: free from researcher bias
Bad: time consuming, may be unrepresentative

Question 30

Systematic sample

Answer 30

Every nth member of the target population selected. The list of people in the target population of sorted into a sampling frame. A sampling system is nominated, e.g. every sixth person or a random interval to reduce bias.

Good: avoids researcher bias, usually representative

Question 31

Stratified sample

Answer 31

The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups within the target population or the wider population. The researcher first identifies the different strata that can make up the population then the proportions that are needed for the sample to be representative of worked out. Finally, the participants that make up the stratum are selected using random sampling.

Good: Avoids researcher bias, more representative
Bad: the identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different to complete representation is not possible. Time consuming

Question 32

Opportunity sample

Answer 32

Research has decided to select anyone who will be willing and available to participate in the experiment. The research asks, whoever is around at the time of their study for example in the street.

Good: fast and convenient
Bad: Unrepresentative of target population, findings cannot be generalised. Researcher bias as researchers may avoid people they don’t like the look of

Question 33

Volunteer sample

Answer 33

Participant select themselves to be in the sample (self selection)
The researcher may place an advert in the newspaper, or in the common room noticeboard .

Good: fast and cheap
Bad: volunteer bias, may attract a small unrepresentative group of people

Question 34

Case study

Answer 34

In-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically, data is gathered from a variety of sources by using several different methods.

Positives:
Provides detailed (rich qualitative) information
Provides insight for further research
Permits investigation of otherwise impractical or unethical situations

Negatives
Provides little basis for generalisation of results to the wider population
Researchers’ own subjective feeling may influence the case study (researcher bias)
Difficult to replicate
Time-consuming and expensive

Question 35

Natural Experiment

Answer 35

When the researcher takes advantage of a naturally occurring independent variable, setting does not have to be natural

Strengths:
It can have ecological validity. Can be useful in studying phenomena that is unethical to manipulate, eg a school shooting

Weaknesses:
More difficult to control extraneous variables making it harder for other researchers to replicate. Researcher has no control over independent variables

Question 36

Field Experiment

Answer 36

Conducted in a real, everyday setting (not a literal field)

Strengths:
There is lower chance of demand characteristics occurring.

Weaknesses:
Can be very time consuming and expensive

Question 37

Quasi Experiment

Answer 37

When the researcher does not control the IV, the IV is a pre existing difference between participants eg gender or age. Can occur in lab conditions

Strengths:
Often carried out in lab conditions so has high control.

Weaknesses:
Participants cannot be randomly allocated into groups so there is a strong likelihood of confounding variables.

Question 38

Lab experiment

Answer 38

They are conducted in a highly controlled environment, not always a literal lab

Strengths:
Uses a standardised procedure that is easy to replicate. Highly controlled which makes accurate measurements possible. High control allows cause and effect to be established.

Weaknesses:
It is likely that participants will know they are being studied which can cause the problem of Hawthorne effect. Demand characteristics can occur. May not reflect real life and therefore could lack ecological validity.

Question 39

Consent Form

Answer 39

• Explains what will happen, and what the participants are asked to do
• Research aims
• How long it will take
• Reminds them that they can withdraw at any time
Any data collected will be kept confidential

Question 40

Debrief

Answer 40

• A debrief occurs at the end of an experiment
• It should contain the true details of the experiment, including aims, the existence of other experimental groups or conditions
• Participants must be told what their data will be used for and be given the right to withdraw their data (especially for retrospective consent)
Participants may require counselling in extreme cases, which the researcher should provide

Question 40

Debrief

Answer 40

• A debrief occurs at the end of an experiment
• It should contain the true details of the experiment, including aims, the existence of other experimental groups or conditions
• Participants must be told what their data will be used for and be given the right to withdraw their data (especially for retrospective consent)
Participants may require counselling in extreme cases, which the researcher should provide

Question 41

Presumptive consent

Answer 41

a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If it is agreed then the consent of the participants is presumed

Question 42

Prior General Consent

Answer 42

participants give permission to take part in a number of studies, including one involving deception, they are consenting to being deceived

Question 43

Retrospective Consent

Answer 43

they are asked after they have already taken part