Exam1ObjectivesBased Flashcards
How do you calculate the total body water?
Multiply the weight (kg) by .6 (or 60%). The amount of water is inversely related to fat. Total body water = ~60% BW
How do you calculate intracellular and extracellular fluid?
Intracellular fluid = ~40% of BW Extracellular fluid = ~20% of BW = 16% interstitial fluid = 4% plasma
How do you calculate blood volumes?
Blood volume = 6-8 % (60-mL/kg) BW
What are the characteristics of cell membranes?
They are not freely soluble to all solutes. They have selective permeability They are composed of lipids and proteins
Explain the phospholipid and protein component of cell membranes
The phospholipid component: Glycerol backbone (water soluble) Fatty acids tails (lipid soluble) Forms a lipid bilayer making it amphipathic The protein component includes -Integral proteins -Peripheral proteins
Summarize how transport can occur across cell membranes
Transport across the cell membrane can occur with or without the use of ATP, but it is specific. -Down the electrochemical gradient is called SIMPLE DIFFUSION -Against the electrochemical gradient: Primary transport (direct input of energy) Secondary transport (indirect input of energy)
Explain the features of carrier-mediated transport and list the transport systems that use them
- Saturation: carrier proteins have limited binding sites (rate of transport highest at lower solute concentration ) 2. Stereospecificity: Binding sites are specific 3. Competition: carriers may recognize and bind chemically-related solutes
Explain five factors that contribute to the rate of simple diffusion
- Concentration gradient: driving force 2. Partition coefficient: based on lipid solubility of solute 3. Diffusion coefficient: based on the size and viscosity of solution 4. Thickness of membrane 5. Surface area: greater surface area =higher diffusion rate Consequences of ion diffusion: 1. Potential difference created 2. Diffusion potential created
Describe the principle of primary active transport and list three examples
the solutes movement occurs against the concentration gradient and requires ATP. 1. Sodium/potassium ATPase pump: present in membranes of ALL CELLS 2. Calcium ATPase pump: (PMCA) present in muscle cells 3. H+/K+ ATPase pump present in stomach 4. H+ ATPase present in kidney
Describe the principle of secondary active transport and explain two types of secondary transport
Secondary transport used the energy (concentration gradient) created from the action of one pump (e.g., Na+/K+ ATPase pump) to drive a different pump -Co-transport (symport): all solutes are transported in same direction. ex: the sodium is used in the secondary pump to bring glucose in against its concentration gradient inside the cell. -Counter-transport (antiport): the solutes moved in the opposite directions. ex: Calcium and sodium exchange
What are the major ions in ICF? cations/anions
cation: K+ anion: organic phosphates and proteins
What are the major ions in ECF?
cation: Na+ anion: Cl- and HCO3-
How is electronegativity in ECF and ICF maintainted?
When Osmolarity is same in both compartments
What is the plasma volume of a 35 kg dog?
35 (.04)= 1.4 or 1400 mL/kg
What does the movement of solutes across the cell membrane depend on?
- Concentration gradient: driving force 2. Partition coefficient: based on lipid solubility of solute 3. Diffusion coefficient: based on the size and viscosity of solution 4. Thickness of membrane 5. Surface area: greater surface area =higher diffusion rate
What does the movement of solutes across the cell membrane depend on?
- Concentration gradient: driving force 2. Partition coefficient: based on lipid solubility of solute 3. Diffusion coefficient: based on the size and viscosity of solution 4. Thickness of membrane 5. Surface area: greater surface area =higher diffusion rate
What are aquaporins?
Specialized channels that carry water into the cell during osmosis
What are aquaporins?
Specialized channels that carry water into the cell during osmosis
Explain the principles of osmosis, osmotic pressure, and hydrostatic pressure.
Osmosis is the flow of water across the cell membrane and it occurs due to PRESSURE DIFFERENCES= OSMOTIC PRESSURE. It does not required carriers nor energy. Osmotic pressure is the tendency of the solution to pull in more solvent Hydrostatic pressure is the pushing pressure exerted by the stationary fluid at equilibrium (stops osmosis)
Describe osmotic and hydrostatic pressures as they relate to fluid movement into and out of blood vessels
Osmotic pressure: the pressure needed to stop osmosis It depends on the number, not the mass of molecules: P= n (number of particles)/volume
Define and contrast osmolarity and osmolality
Osmoles: osmotic pressure caused by a mole of molecules in water. Osmolality: the amount of force per volume measured in mOsm/L or mmol/kg. Normal plasma osmolality ~290 mOsm/L
Define osmotic balance and tonicity
Isosmotic: equal osmotic pressure Hyperosmotic: solution with higher solutes (number of molecules) exerting more pressure Hypo-osmotic: solution with lower concentration, exerts less pressure
Explain the term “oncotic pressure” and how it relates to fluid movement into and out of blood vessels
Oncotic pressure is a form of osmotic pressure specifically exerted by proteins, mostly albumin, white blood vessels. It tends to pull water into blood vessels (necessary to maintain flow) Hydrostatic pressure = opposes osmotic pressure (pulls water out of vessels) Decrease in blood oncotic pressure = edema (fluids coming out of vessels into interstitial)
1.Define diffusion potential and equilibrium potential and describe the conditions necessary to establish these potentials.
Diffusion potential is the negative or positive potential difference created by charged ions moving down the concentration gradient across the membrane. Electrophoresis: proteins inside the cells are anions. The two forces causing ions to move are: 1. Concentration gradient 2. Electrical gradient Equilibrium potential: the protein component inside and the non-protein component outside the cell balance out the charges
Explain how a resting membrane potential (RMP) is generated and list the ions contributing
V= I x R (Ohm’s law)
Voltage is potential
I= current (flow, kenetic)
R= resistance
G= conductance (ability to move or flow)
- Selective permeability of the membrane for Na+ and K+
- The Na+/K+ ATPase pump sets diffusion potential (3 Na+ per 2 K+)
The nerve impulse is unidirectional and they start at the AXON HILLOCK.
During the resting state (polarized) the inside of the cell is negative because K+ is slowly leaking out of the cell (K+ efflux) ~-70 mv.
During active state (depolarization) the inside is positive because Na+ rushes in. ~ +40 mv.
During repolarization it goes too far ~ -80mv. Inside K+ pump allows too much in.
The membrane potential is created by enough stimuli to reach/activate the threshold. If it doesn’t (subthreshold) it remains in a local excitatory state.
.Define the terms depolarization, hyperpolarization, inward and outward current, threshold potential, overshoot, undershoot, absolute and refractory periods
Hypokalemia: less K+ outside the cell = hyperpolarization (K efflux higher and inside of cell more negative)
Hyperkalemia: More K outside = less efflux, which cause the cell to be more positive inside bringing closer to threshold
Refractory periods occur when the excited cell can not produce a AP because it needs to recharge.
Absolute refractory period (ARP): period of time during which a 2nd AP can’t occur no matter how strong the stimilus is because the Na+ channels are closed (inactivation). It lapses from the firing level to the early part of repolarization
Relative refractory period (RRP):
Identify the events of an action potential (AP) on a graph and describe those events
AP is the rapid changes in the membrane potential following stimulation of the nerve by threshol stimulus.
At rest the neuron becomes excited by stimuli. If the threshold is met then it depolarizes (firing level). After depolarization it reaches a peak (spike potential 2ms) Na+ infflux fast two door gated channels.
Repolarization is rapid but then slower K+ channels only one door, open and Na+ channel closes.
Hyperpolarization takes a longer time to reach RMP again.
The non-gated K+ channels (slowly leaking) then inward K+ in hyperpolarization. The voltage gated K+ overshoots
The latent period happens before stimuli reaches threshold.
1.Explain the difference between electrical and chemical synapses, and define gap junctions
Millions of neurons within the body must communicate with another or effector cells via synapses that allow information to be filtered and integrated.
- Electrical synapses: have gap junctions and ion channels (a.k.a. connexons) that connect two adjecent cells. This type os synapse is common in cardiac and smooth muscle. electrical synapses allow for quicker communication than chemical synapses, coordination of larger number of cells, and two-way transmission between two cells.
- Chemical synapses: there is a physical separation between two cells (synaptic cleft). The action potential only propagate along membranes it can’t cross the synaptic cleft. The Action potential is converted into a chemical signal when it reaches the Pre-synaptic end bulb. It uses neurotransmitters to cross the cleft.
AP arrives at the presynaptic axon terminal, then the voltage gated Ca ions open, which triggers neurotranmiters vesicles to fuse with the cell membrane at active zones. Exocytosis occurs and the neurotransmitters flow into the cleft. They bind to ligand-gated Na channels (postsynaptic densities) causing the channels to open. Na+ enters the cell leading to depolarization and if it reaches threshold an AP is genetared in the postsynaptic neuron.
Discuss how an AP is propagated and how length constant affects conduction velocity
The length constant: how far depolarization current will spread along a nerve. Membrane resistance and internal resistance affect length constant.
Describe two ways in which conduction velocity can be increased in nerve cells
Pain is the slowest signal in our body
The refractory period is the recharging period. A battery without a charge doesn’t not work, but after it is recharged (repolarized, negative inside the cell) it has voltage again.
Propagation of AP is an illusion. One area/dominoe is activated (ON) the other is (OFF). Propagation is limited by how quuickly the distal “dominoes” can be restored to a “standing” position before the next wave of falling dominoes reaches that point.
The speed of propagation is directly proportional to the diameter of the nerve fiber: bigger diameter = increased speed.
Saltatory Conduction: Myelinated sheets creates an insolation where they are interrumpted (Nodes of Ranvier) the AP jumps from one node to the other.
The distance of two nodes affects the speed of propagation (internodal distance). Greater distance =greater speed
2.Describe excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, and list the neurotransmitters that cause them
- Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs): occur when the postsynaptic neuron is depolarized, the Na channels open and K channels open.
Excitatory neurotransmitters: Ach (Acetylcholine), NE (Noepinephrine), Dopamine, Glutamate, Seratonin. ANDGS
- Inhibitatory post synaptic potential (IPSPs): occurs when the cell is hyperpolarized, opens the Cl Channels and AP is harder or imposible to achieve.
Inhibitatory neurotransmitters: GABA, Glycine.
3.Describe and compare how IPSPs and EPSPs summate, including spatial and temporal, and why is this important
Note: the Axon Hillock is where the AP is fired down the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of other neurons.
AP signals: patterns of electrical disturbance that raises down the axon.
Neurons rarely process and analyze information salone. They work in dynamic circuits of many neurons. Neurocomputations can occurs among neurons or among dendrites of one neuron.
- Spatial summation: Two or more EPSPs signals arrive at the post synaptic cell and the depolarization summates and create an AP, but if there are IPSPs equally in frequency and value to EPSPs, then they cancel each other out.
- Temporal summation: occurs when the signals arrive in rapid succession and overlap causing enough activation to reach the threasold and cause an AP
Note: Subthreshold and Spatial sumation of EPSPs and IPSPs do not create APs
- Give examples of each type of ionotropic receptor, the neurotransmitter associated with it, and the post-synaptic actions
- Give examples of each type metabotropic receptor, the neurotransmitter associated with it, and the 4 possible pathways of post-synaptic actions
- Ionotropic receptors: function as tiny holes in the neuron that once the neurotransmitter binds to them, the receptor opens the little hole and allows ions to pass through. They activate rapidly and are LIGAND-GATED CHANNELS. They are generally Excitatory. The change in charge inside the neuron occurs rapidly.
Acetylcholine (PNS)
Glutamate
Glycine
GABAa Receptors
- Metabotropic receptors: do not typically open a hole in the membrane, but they trigger secondary signaling cascades inside that have delayed downstream affects. The change in charge inside the neuron occurs slowly. Examples of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs)
Norepinephrine (NE) Alpha1 and Alpha2 Beta1 and Beta2
Glutamate (inhibitatory)
GABAb gammaaminobutyric acid (inhibitatory)
Possible pathways of post-synaptic actions include: opening of ion channels by activating effector proteins that interact with intracellular messengers, Norepinephrine receptor activation can lead to the increase of protein phosphorylation in the cell, Glumatameta activates IP3 pathway leading to phosphorylation and activate calcium-binding proteins, Dopamine inhibition of Adenylyl cyclase and decrease of cAMP leading to decrease protein phosphorylation.
5.Give examples of each type metabotropic receptor, the neurotransmitter associated with it, and the 4 possible pathways of post-synaptic actions
- Metabotropic receptors: do not typically open a hole in the membrane, but they trigger secondary signaling cascades inside that have delayed downstream affects. The change in charge inside the neuron occurs slowly. Examples of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs)
Norepinephrine (NE) Alpha1 and Alpha2 Beta1 and Beta2
Glutamate (inhibitatory)
GABAb gammaaminobutyric acid (inhibitatory)
Possible pathways of post-synaptic actions include: opening of ion channels by activating effector proteins that interact with intracellular messengers, Norepinephrine receptor activation can lead to the increase of protein phosphorylation in the cell, Glumatameta activates IP3 pathway leading to phosphorylation and activate calcium-binding proteins, Dopamine inhibition of Adenylyl cyclase and decrease of cAMP leading to decrease protein phosphorylation.
What is summation? ARP, RRP and local response?
When you add stimulus, more and more until it increases the magnitude of the local response.
The firing level is not achieved during summation (local response). However, in AP all or nothing principle and the firing level is reached. Anesthesia blocks AP maintaining the neuron completely depolarized (negative, further away from firing level).
What factors contribute to nerve excitability?
Calcium (Hypercalcemia)
Sodium
Potassium
Sodium potassium pump
Anything that decreases nerve excitability is a membrane stabilizer ex: administering calcium, calcium gluconate to stabilize the member of the heart.
Glucose takes five things into the cell to produce energy
What is accomodation?
The gradual increase of stilumus intensity that does not result in Action potential because the Na+ channels are opened slowly and the K+ would counteract it, no response is achieved.
Describe the general design and function of the nervous system
The components of the CNS:
- Brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, and brains stem
- Spinal cord: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal.
The central nervous system receives sensory information, integrates it and process it. It decides if motor response is necessary and will occur. Not all sensory stimuli require a motor response.
CNS: Integrations (conscious & unconscious)
PNS: Integration (conscious & unconscious) Sensory output, environmental stimuli and motor output
The components of the PNS:
- Spinal nerves containing sensory and motor function
- Sensory (afferent) neuron: convey information from the sensory cells to the CNS
- Motor (efferent) neurons: conveys information from CNS to effectors
EFFECTOR: can be a cell, organ, or tissue that responds to stimulus
NERVE: is abundle of neuron axons in the PNS that convey information from a particular source.
BOTH CNS and PNS contain sensory and motor components
The CNS also contains integrative components
Describe the general anatomic structure of the spinal cord and the divisions and roles of each major area
What does SS, VS, VM, and SM stand for?
The spinal cord extends from just the caudal medulla to vertebral body L6 (in the dog). The center line devides the Dorsal (sensory) and Ventral (motor) functions.
Gray matter (inside): Interneurons and motor neurons. Butterfly or “H” Shape. It contains 2nd order sensory relay neurons in the dorsal horn and motor neurons in the ventral and intermediolateral horns.
Dorsal horn: Contains interneurons (sensory)
Lateral horn: Contains motor neurons
Ventral horn: Contains motor neurons
White matter (outside): surrounds the gray matter.
Dorsal root: It is sensory. Contains dorsal root ganglion, Somatic sensory neuron, and Visceral sensory neuron.
Ventral root: It is motor. contains Somatic motor neuron, Visceral motor neuron
Dorsal root ganglion: Collection of SOMAS in the peripheral nervous system, which is outside the spinal cord and CNS.
Three funiculi: ventral funiculus, lateral, and dorsal funiculus. They contain ascending and descending UMN (upper motor neurons) repectively.
Tracts or Axon bundles
Note: Autonomic and somatic are both motor bc they are on the ventral side. The somatic will not relay in a ganglia (Ganglion is a relay station for distribution and regulation), it will go straight to muscle bc you need to run to save your life, so there can’t be any delay. However, autonomic will relay in a ganglia, which devides in Pre-ganglionic and Post-ganglionic Fibers.
Describe the general anatomic structure of the brain and the roles of each major area
The cerebral cortex: part of the telencephalon. It plans and initiates conscious voluntary movements. However, it is not required for many unconscious functions, sterotypical movements in animals. It receives and processed most somatic senses, vision, olfaction, taste, hearing, etc. SENSORY DESIGNATED AREAS.
The BASAL NUCLEI: is deep in the cerebral hemispheres and close to midline. Caudate, putamen, globus pallidus, others. It helps orchestrate and assemble more comples motor tasks. It has Pyramidal and Extrapyramidal tracts.
Thalamus and Hypothalamus: part of the diencephalon. Thalamus contains 3rd order neurons (sensory relay) and relays signals to cortex. The hypothalamus has vital functions )temperature regulation, thirst, appetite. Also involve in hormone release from pituitary glad. Also, many autonomic functions.
Midbrain Structures: Auditory and visual relay centers. Extrapyramidal UMN center.
Ponds and Medulla: Motor coordination and autonomic respiratory, cardiovascular, food intake, swallowing, coughing, vomiting functions.
Describe the components of CSF and how it is formed
It is low protein fluid that exists in the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, and in the subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord.
It is formed by the choroid plexus at a rate of 3ml/hr in dogs, 1ml/h in cats, 20 ml/h in human.
The CSF is an ultrafiltrate of plasma
CO2 and O2 move freely
CSF is created in the Lateral ventricles or 3rd ventricle.
Describe normal flow of CSF throughout the CNS and how it exits the CNS
The CSF flows through the Cerebral aqueduct into 4th ventricle, then into the Subaractnoid space and Central canal of spinal column
Explain the structure and role of the blood brain barrier
The BBB is to seal the CNS from blood to preserve hemostasis within the cerebral compartment, except in some key spots for sensory modifications to monitor the blood (e.g., pituitary glad, pineal body). The capillaries in the CNS have tight junctions between them to prevent many molecules passing from blood into the brain.
It is composed of Astrocytes and Podocyte cells that secrete sodium, water, chloride, and bicarbonate following the sodium.
The MDR pump moves waste products out of the brain, including drugs.
Describe the embryologic origen of the CNS and PNS
The CNS originates from the NEURAL TUBE
The PNS originates from NEURAL CREST
We started as a bilamminar embryo. The inner cell mast is called embryoblast, which forms the embryo.
The embryoblast will form into two layers: Epiblast is what contributes to the main embryo and form a primitive streak.
The Trilamminar embryo consist of:
The primitive streak, which has an endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm layer.
The Neuroectoderm originates from the Ectoderm and it produces the Neural Tube and the Neural Crest.
Describe the cerebellum and its functions
It is made of gray matter in folia where it receives and processses propiceptive, motor, and vestibular signals.
Coordinates movements, adjusts tone, and helps maintain balance. It is considered part of the vetibular system.
Outline and describe the events at the neuromuscular junction
- Action potential arrive at axon terminal
- Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open
- Ca2+ enters the cell
- Ca2+ signals to vesicle, permeability increases. Ca2+ causes release of Ach stored in the vesicles.
- Vesicles move to membrane
- Docket vesicles release (Acetylcholine) neurotransmitter by exocytosis
- Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to the receptors. Signal can be excitatory (depolarization) inhibitatory (hyperpolarization). Ach binds to nicotinic receptors, channel opens, Na+ moves in, K+ moves out.
- Motor end plate depolarizes from -90mV to -50mV this is the end plate potential (EPP)
- Depolarization spreads from motor end plate to muscle fiber cells
- EPP stops when Ach degraded by acetylcholinesterase (AchE)
List and describe the components and areas of the myofil
Groups of muscle fibers= fasciculus
Muscle fiber (muscle cell or myocite) contains myofibrils
Muscle cell innervated by motoneurons
Myofibrils surrounded by sarcoplasmatic reticulum composed of actin (thin), myosin (thick), and titin= thick and thin filaments
Sarcomere consider a contractile unit.
Light Band
Dark Band
Bare Zone (H Zone)
M line
Discuss the roles of the sarcolemma, SR, T tubules inthe contraction of the muscle cell
The whole cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane of the muscle cell (Sarcolemma)
Transverse T tubules is going to help the AP. They extend to the muscle cells, carry the depolarization from the motor end plate to the interior of the cell. It happens extremely quickly and it allows it to contact the Sarcoplama Reticulum
Sarcoplasma reticulum helps regulate Ca+ in the cytosol. It is the SERCA pump.
Calcium release channels called ryanodine receptor
T tubules contain Dihydropyridine receptor, which undergoes conformational changes as AP arrives
Ryanodine receptor causing Ca channels to open and release Ca from SR
Explain how AP causes an increase in intracellular Ca, list the proteins/receptors involved, and state the role of Ca in excitation-contraction of coupling
Outline and describe the steps involved in cross-bridge cycling
Myosin heads bind actin to form cross-bridges
- Myosin head attached to actin in “rigor” position
- ATP binds myosin head, decreases affinity of myosin for actin, myosin releases
- ATP hydrolyzes, myosin moves towards plus end actin (away from the M line)
- Myosin binds new site on actin =power stroke
Contraction stops when AP passes, ryanodine receptors close, and Ca reaccumulated by SR via SR Ca pump
Discuss the characteristics of fast vs. slow-twitch skeletal muscle and how those characteristics relate to fatigue
Skeletal muscles generally contain both fast and slow-tiching motor units
Slow-twitch muscle fibers are small in diameter, have higher oxydative capacity, lower gycolytic capacity and are a myosin isoform. They are reddish and are more fatigue resistent. They are usually recruited first.
Fast-twitch muscle fibers are large in diameter, higher glycolytic capacity, lower oxidative capacity. They fatigue first
Name the structures located in skeletal muscle for modulating force of contraction and explain their role
Force of contraction in skeletal muscle we can increase the force of contraction by recruting more muscle fibers
Spatial summation is the summation of forces from our muscle fibers by recruiting one type first and other types as needed.
Temporal summation or Tetanus when we repeatedily stimulate the muscle before it can relax. Calcium intracellular level is elevated bc its released from SR faster than it can be taken back out.
Explain spatial summation and temporal summation and discuss how they relate to force of skeletal muscle contractions
Spatial summation is the summation of forces from our muscle fibers by recruiting one type first and other types as needed.
Temporal summation or Tetanus when we repeatedily stimulate the muscle before it can relax. Calcium intracellular level is elevated bc its released from SR faster than it can be taken back out.
List the energy pools for skeletal muscle contractions
ATP pool continually replenished by
Creatine-phosphate pool
Muscle glycogen stores
Glucose from blood
Fatty acids from blood and stored fat in muscles
Muscle fatigue is not because you can’t get more ATP, but due to metabolic byproduct (e.g., lactic acid). It is a protective mechanism. Accumulation of lactic acid decreases pH, which starts to inhibit myosin-actin interaction.
Explain the length-tension and force-velocity relationships
Refers to the effect of muscle fiber length on amount of tension the fiber can develop.
Very short (< 2.0 µm) or very long (> 2.5 µm) sarcomeres limit the ability of the muscle to generate force contraction
Force-velocity relationship
How does Botulinus toxin alters neuromuscular function?
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Compare and contrast the autonomic and somatic nervous systems
Autonomic Nervous System controls involuntary responses. It is dived into:
Sympathetic: Response system
Parasympathetic :“Rest and digest” system
Somatic Nervous System controls voluntary movements
Compare and contrast the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system including: Site of origen in CNS, Organs on innervations, Neural pathways, Neurotrasmitters, Location of SNS vs. PSNS ganglia
The Sympathetic Nervous System Postganglion Neurotransmitters: Norepinephrine, and Ach in salivary glands.
Origen: Lateral Horn Cell of CNS. Thorolumbar region of spinal column.
Relay: Cervical Ganglia (Lateral), where Eye pupillodilation occurs, skin vessoconstriction to reduce bleeding, Salivary glands secretion, which increases thirst, so drinking water cools down your body.
Cervical and upper thoracic (lateral), ß1 and ß2 receptors work on bronchiodilation, cardiovascular increase heart rate, raises blood pressure by constricting vessels except in muscles and coronary artery. No energy wasted in digestion, so blood is taken from GI tract through V.C.
Celiac and Superior. mesenteric (collateral) abdomen, Inferior mesenteric (collateral). The bladder relaxes to hold urine.
Note: Only Adrenal Medulla can produce Epinephrine and Norepinephrine because it has the enzyme PMMT
Describe the SNS regulation of organ response by adrenoceptors including postsynaptic receptor type.
The Sympathetic Nervous System releases NE and Alpha (are less sensitive) and Beta receptors in the smooth muscle (bladder) cause the following:
Cervical and upper thoracic (lateral), ß1 and ß2 receptors work on bronchiodilation, cardiovascular increase heart rate, raises blood pressure by constricting vessels except in muscles and coronary artery. No energy wasted in digestion, so blood is taken from GI tract through V.C.
Celiac and Superior. mesenteric (collateral) abdomen, Inferior mesenteric (collateral). The bladder relaxes to hold urine.
Note: Only Adrenal Medulla can produce Epinephrine and Norepinephrine because it has the enzyme to produce it from NE
Review session
Read the question, show your work, which may give you partial credit, use the correct units on everything.
Learn the material what the forrest is layout, start at the top levels then your way down.
- What area of the neuron do the AP occur? Everything is comming into the dendrites. Graded potentials are going to be seen on the SOMA, cell body. Axon Hillock all EPSPs and IPSPs are coming there. AP travels down the axon.
- Lower motor neurons.
- Upper motor neurons axons go to the body
Sensory neurons have graded potentials at the receptor end for touch, pain, etc. AP occurs after the are at the spinal cord.
Thoacholumbar for parasympathetic
Craniosecral for sympathetic
Upper motor neuron pathways pyramidal (fine motor) tracts are cerebral cortex control. Animals with a lot of hand manipulation
Extrapyramidal motion control most common in animals that don’t need fine motor
Five get reuptake, one of them does not get reuptake. Acetylcholine (broken down in cleft) by Acetylcholinase
Diffusion potential you need concentration gradient
Equilibrium potential, if I could let the K+ it wants to be at -90 mV. Sodiumm wants to go to 30 mV. Equilibrium potential deals with gated or ungated channels. Currents could be happening at the same time.
Pseudounipolar design
Spatial summation are two or more comming in (spaced out)
Temporal is timed, coming
GABBAa is ionotropic, GABBAb metabotropics
Chain ganglia collection of sympathetic
