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BIOS 230 > Exam Two Prep > Flashcards

Exam Two Prep Flashcards

1
Q

how to measure heritable variation

A

phenotype = genotypic effects + enviornmental effects

Vp = Vg + Eg

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2
Q

how is genetic variance broken down

A

Va= additive genetic variance
Vd= dominance variance
Vi= epistatic variance

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3
Q

additive genetic variance

Va

A

variation due to additive effects of alleles at aall relevant loci
- inherritance of alleles

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4
Q

dominance variance

Vd

A

variation associated with interactions between alleles at a specific locus

affects the phenotype derived from genes, not affected by how genes are inherited

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5
Q

epistatic variance

Vi

A

genetic variation associated with non-additive interactions between different alleles in different loci

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6
Q

heritabillity

h^2

A

proportion of the variance in phenotype that is transmissible from parents to offspring

influenced by natural selection

heritabillity ranges from 0 to 1,

heritabillity= 1 trait influenced by genetics only
heritabillity = 0 trait influenced by environment

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7
Q

what are the measures of heritabillity?

A

broad sense heritabillity (H)

narrow sense heritabillity (h^2)

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8
Q

broad sense heritabillity (H)

A

measures the proportion of phenotypic variation due to genetic effects

easy to measure less informative

H= genetic variance/phenotypic variance

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9
Q

narrow sense heritabillity (h^2)

A

determines the degree to which offspring resemble their parents

harder to measure more informative

h^2= additive genetic variance/phenotypic variance

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10
Q

on a linear graph what is the heritabillity?

A

the slope is the heritabillity

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11
Q

Breeder’s equation

A

R=(h^2)(S)

can be used to predict the response to direction selection on a trait

R= response to selection
S= Selection differential
h^2= heritabillity

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12
Q

artificial selection

A

“managed evolution” practice of selecting a group of organisms from a population to become the parents of the next

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13
Q

truncation point

A

cut off level of phenotype that determines which individuals will be used for breeding purposes

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14
Q

Selection differential (S)

A

the difference between mean length of the breeders and mean length of the inital population

strength of selection

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15
Q

Response to selection (R)

A

difference between mean length before and after selection

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16
Q

breeder’s equation rearranged for heritabillity

A

h^2=R/S
or
h^2= (next gen - original)/(selected- original)

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17
Q

modes of selection

A

effects of natural selction on the distribution of a trait

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18
Q

what are the three modes of selection

A

directional
stabilizing
disruptive

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19
Q

directional selection

A

fitness consitently increases (or decr.) with the value of a trait

mean value of trait will increase or decrease

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20
Q

stabilizing selection

A

selection favors intermediate trait

variation of the continuous trait is** reduced**

doesn’t change mean value of trait

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21
Q

disruptive selection

A

selection favors extreme phenotypes

variation of trait increases

doesn’t change mean value of a trait

may lead to speciation

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22
Q

species

A

smallest evolutionarily independent unit, basic unit of classification

what consititutes a species is highly debated

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23
Q

biological species concept

A

a species is a group of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other groups

reproductive isolation is a mechanism of preventing two species from producing viable, fertile offspring

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24
Q

types of reproductive barriers

A

prezygotic and postzygotic

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25
Q

prezygotic reproductive barriers

A

prevent mating or fertilization from happening

examples: habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, temporal isolation, mechanical isolation, gametic isolation

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26
Q

example of

habitat isolation

A

parasites living on different hosts

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27
Q

example of

temporal isolation

A

plants that flower at different times, insects that emerge at different times of year

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28
Q

example of

behavioral isolation

A

different mating calls or dances

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29
Q

example of

mechanical isolation

A

structural differences that prevent mating

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30
Q

example of

gametic isolation

A

sperm of one species cannot fertilize eggs of another

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31
Q

postzygotic reproductive barriers

A

prevent a hybird zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult

prevent the formation of fertile offspring even if mating does occur

reduces hybrid viabillity and fertillity

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32
Q

problems of biological species concept

A
  1. not applicable to asexual organisms
  2. difficult to apply in “real world”
  3. not applicable to extinct organisms
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33
Q

morphological species concept

A

species are sets of organims that ** look similar ** to each other and distinct from others

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34
Q

problems with morphological species concept

A
  1. descriptions of morphological characteristics are subjective
  2. some morphological characters may not reflect evolutionary theory
  3. not applicable to organims that are morpholocially indistinguishable but are clearly different lineages

as per 2. an example would be traits produced by convergent evolution

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35
Q

phylogenetic species concept

A

species are the smallest monophyletic group on evolutionary tree

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36
Q

problems with phylogenetic species concept

A
  1. phylogenies are often unknown
  2. cut off for a species is often arbitrary

as per 2. how much genetic distinctiveness is required to seperate one species from another

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37
Q

general lineage concept

A

species are evolving metapopulation lineages

species criterions dont typically arise at the same time or order

attempts to unify all other species concepts

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38
Q

under the general lineage concept

species criterions (SC)

A

evidence for lineage diversification

ex- reproductive incompatible
gentic differention
morphologically distinct

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39
Q

lineage

A

lineal descedent from an ancestor

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40
Q

allopatric speciation

A

speciation involving geographical separation of populations

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41
Q

geographical isolation

A

physical barrier prevents genetic exchange

basically allopatric

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42
Q

types of geographical isolation

A
  1. isolation by dispersal
  2. isolation by vicariance
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43
Q

geographic isolation by dispersal

A

dispersal (migration) past the barrier

can cause founder event

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44
Q

geographic seperation by vicariance

A

when a new geographical barrier appears and seperates a once continuous population

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45
Q

ring species

A

new species can arise through circular overlap without limiting gene flow

think about the salamanders aroudn the mountains

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46
Q

parapatric speciation

A

speciation event occurs in continuously distributed population without disninct geographical isolation

a hybrid zone is formed

VERY RARE

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47
Q

sympatric speciation

A

new species evolve from common ancestor w/o geographical isolation

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48
Q

for sympatric speciation

examples of isolation mechanisms

A
  1. habitat isolation
  2. temporal isolation
  3. behavioral isolation
  4. polyploidy
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49
Q

polyploidization

A

whole genome is duplicated and double chromosome #
offspring unable to breed with parental species

two types: autopolyploids and allopolyploids

CAUSES SYMPATRIC SPECIATION

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50
Q

autopolyploids

A

genome duplication within a species

individuals have extra set of chromosmes from SAME parental species

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51
Q

allopolyploids

A

genome duplication in a hybrid

individuals have extra set of chromosomes from DIFFERENT species

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52
Q

How would hybridization affect speciation?

A. Hybridization may slow or reverse differentiation by
allowing gene flow and recombination.
B. Hybridization may accelerate speciation via promoting
adaptive divergence through gene introgression.
C. Hybridization may cause speciation by
allopolyploidization.
D. All of the above.

A

D. All of the above

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53
Q

seperation caused by geographical isolation

A
  1. seperation
  2. divergence
  3. reproductive isolation
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54
Q

in terms of speciation caused by geographical isolation

seperation

A

genetic isolation of populations, some form of physical isolation prevents gene flow

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55
Q

in terms of speciation caused by geographical isolation

divergence

A

differentiation among populations, due to natural selection or genetic drift

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56
Q

in terms of speciation caused by geographical isolation

reproductive isolation

A

if physical barrier is removed, populations cannot interbreed

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57
Q

phylogeny

A

evolutionary history of a group of organisms

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58
Q

phylogenetic ( or evolutionary ) tree

A

graphical summary of evolutionary hsitory

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59
Q

what does an evolutionary tree demonstrate?

A
  1. hypotheses about relatedness and common ancestry
  2. timing of evolutionary modifications (transitions) that occured
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60
Q

of a phylogenetic tree

root

A

ancestral taxon where all other nodes descend

61
Q

of a phylogenetic tree

tips

A

descendant taxa

basically the modern day species or descendant

62
Q

of a phylogenetic tree

branches

A

lineages, linear descend from ancestors

63
Q

of a phylogenetic tree

nodes

A

evolutionary branch points, shared ancestors

64
Q

of a phylogenetic tree

clade

also known as monophyletic group

A

group of organisms that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants

65
Q

monophyletic group

also known as a clade

A

contains single common ancestor and all of its decendants

66
Q

paraphyletic group

A

contains an ancestors and some, but not all of its descendants

67
Q

polyphyletic group

A

contains some of an ancestor’s decendants not including the ancestor

68
Q

synamorphy

A

shared derived character

this is what defines monophyletic groups

traits shared between species because they are homologous and derived from a common ancestor

69
Q

homoplasy

A

traits evolved independently in seperate lineages

analogous traits, could evolve throug convergent evolution

70
Q

apomorphy

A

derived character

types: synamorhpy and automorphy

71
Q

autamorphy

A

unique derived character on a particular taxon

72
Q

polytomy

A

when there is multiple splits, evolutionary relationship cannot be fully resolved

73
Q

principle of parsimony

A

a preferred phylogenetic tree is one that requires the minimum number of character changes

74
Q

cost of meiosis

A

females lose 50% of genetic contribution

75
Q

problems in phylogeny reconstruction

A
  1. convergent evolution leads to analogous traits that do not reflect evolutionary history
  2. homoplasy- traits that have been gained or lost independently in sperate lineages
76
Q

multiregional hypothesis

A

homo erectus evolved in africa and moved into eurasia about two million years ago. homosapiens independently evolved from these

77
Q

out of africa hypothesis

A

abt 200,000 years ago modern humans originated in africa, less than 100,000 years ago they spread across the globe

78
Q

pathenogenesis

A

offspring developed from unfertilized eggs

allows females to reproduce asexually

79
Q

costs of breaking adpated genetic combinations

A

reproducing sexually may disrupt beneficial genetic combination and lower the mean fitness of offspring

80
Q

costs of sexual reproduction

A
  1. cost of meiosis
  2. cost of males
  3. costs of breaking adapted genetic combinations
  4. costs associated with the mating process

look at these from the female perspective

81
Q

cost of males

A

males do not provide resource to the next generation, yet femals typically invest half of resources into production from males

cost of having less number of offspring in sexual reproduction due to the production of males

82
Q

costs associated with the mating process

A

finding a mate, energy spent on courtship, increased risk of predation
risk of disease transmission and parasite infection

83
Q

advantages of sexual reproduction

A
  1. lottery hypothesis
  2. muller’s rachet hypothesis
  3. red queen hypothesis
84
Q

lottery hypothesis

A

sexual reproduction allows organisms to produce genetically diverse offspring

some might be able to surrvive better by chance

not supported by empirical data

85
Q

Muller’s rachet hypothesis

A

sexual reproduction decreases deletrious mutations through recomination

more data supports this hypthesis

86
Q

red queen hypothesis

A

coevolving species maintains a dynamic equillibrium, sexual reproduction can increase host resistance to parasites

87
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an organism

88
Q

anisogamy

A

fusion of gametes that are dimorphic

term for different sized gametes

89
Q

males vs females on reproduction

A

males will specialize on finding mates

females will specialize on parental effort not mating effort

90
Q

secondary sexual characteristics

A

characters not needed for surrvival or mating but used for competition for mates or mate attraction

evolved through sexual selection

91
Q

sexual selection

A

different reproductive success due to variation among individuals in sucess at getting mates

92
Q

who is sexual selection more intense towards

A

more intense on the sex that is specialized on finding mates

this is typically males

93
Q

sexual selection for males

A

reproductive success is limted by access to mates

males evovle to compete for mates

intrasexual selection

94
Q

sexual selection for females

A

reproductive success is limtied by capacity to produce or raise offspring

females should be choosy

intersexual selection

95
Q

intrasexual selection

(male-male competition)

A

compete for breeding territories or access to females

leads to evolution of incr. strength, body size or weaponry

96
Q

sneaky male strategy

A

males sneak in to access a femal partner, avoiding more dominant males

97
Q

intersexual selection

(female choice)

A

selection on males based on female choice

many of the traits that females are attractive to are actually maladpative for the surrvival of the male

98
Q

for females how does reproductive success increase

A

by mating with males that provide direct or indirect benefits

99
Q

reproductive success

direct benefits

A

the expression of a male trait may indivate a male’s abillity to provide resources

examples- nupitial gifts, territory, parental care

100
Q

indirect benefits

A

the expression of a male trait may indicate genetic quality of a male

101
Q

why female organisms are choosy?

A
  1. may directly benefit when they get resources
  2. may get better genes for their offspring ( sexy son hypothesis and good genes hypothesis)
  3. may have preexisitng sensory biases (sensory biases hypothesis)
102
Q

runaway selection

A

a secondary sexual trait expressed in one sex becomes genetically correlated with a preference of the trait in the other sex

103
Q

sexy son hypothesis

this is such a weird name

A

females with a preference for ornamented males will produce sons ith higher mating success

104
Q

runaway selection vs sexy son hypothesis

A

runaway theory explains the evolutionary process how males evolved to have a trait based on female preference

sexy son hypothesis explains why females are choosy

105
Q

good genes hypothesis

A

proposes that females select males that have genetic advantages to incr. offspring quality

the male trait that females prefer is a reliable and honest signal of male genetic quality

106
Q

good genes hypothesis vs. sexy son hypothesis

A

sexy son hypothesis - females indirectly benefit from producing attractive sons

good genes hypothesis- females prefer males that give good genes to both her sons and daughters

107
Q

honest signals

example of it at least bc no definition is given

A

birds that are sick don’t have full colorful plumage,
plumage is an honest signal of male’s current health condiition

108
Q

handicap principle

A

suggests that reliable signals must be costly to the signaler

handicap = secondary sexual trait that females prefer, no good for males

handicap has to be costly so it cannot be cheaply imitated

If truly high quality males are more likely to survive with the handicap, then
handicap will be a reliable indicator to represent male’s overall genetic quality

109
Q

sensory bias hypothesis

A

females preferences result from biases in female sensory system

110
Q

examples of reversal in reproductive investment

A

seahorses, gold specs jawfish and giant water bug

if male investment is higher, males tend to be choosy and females compete

111
Q

sex determination system

A

a bio system that determines if an individual is a male, female, or hermaphorodite

112
Q

what determines whether an individual becomes male or female

A
  1. genotypical sex determination
  2. enviormental sex determination
113
Q

genotypic sex determination

A

sex of individual is determined by genotype

ex: mammals, birds, amphibians, most insects, etc

two types: heterogametic sex and homogametic sex

114
Q

heterogametic sex

A

the sex that has two different sex chromosmes

115
Q

homogametic sex

A

the sex that has one type of sex chromosome

116
Q

sex determination in mammals

A

sex is determined by the presence of a Y chromosome

117
Q

sex determination in birds

A

sex is determined by the Z and W chromosomes

male = ZZ female ZW

118
Q

haplodiploidy

A

males develop from haploid unfertilized eggs. females develop from diploid fertilized zygotes

this is the sex determination mechanism in bees ants and wasps

119
Q

enviornmental sex determination

A

influenced by enviornmental cues

cues can be temp, pH, social interactions

ex: many reptiles, some fish

120
Q

true or false

sex is controlled by one master-switch gene

A

false, in model organisms yes but multiple genes can influence sex( polygenic sex determination)

121
Q

hermaphorditism

A

organism is able to produce both male and female gametes

happens to many fish

types: protandry and protogyny

122
Q

protandry

A

organism begins life as a male, changes into a female as it incr. in size

occurs when females gain more in reproductive success as they incr. in size

123
Q

protogyny

A

an organism begins life as a female, changes into a male as it incr. in size

occurs when males gain more reproductive sucesss

124
Q

social behaviors

A

interaction among individuals of the same species in ways other than mating

can be cooperative or conflicting

125
Q

actors

A

individuals that perform social behavior

126
Q

recipients

A

individuals that actor interact with

127
Q

four types of social interactions

A
  1. mutual benefit
  2. selfishness
  3. altruism
  4. spite
128
Q

mutual benefit

A

both actor and recipient gain fitness

ex: cooperative breeding birds, communal nesting

129
Q

selfishness

A

actor acts in a manner that increases its fitness to the demise of another

ex: cannibalism in cane toad- provides nutrients + reduces competition

130
Q

spite

A

actor harms its own fitness and the fitness of another

ex: production of bacteria in two e.coli strands

131
Q

altruism

A

acting ot increase another individual fitness at a cosst to ones own

ex: alarm calling in bedling’s ground squirrel (trilling)

132
Q

hamilton’s rule

not the equation

A

individuals engage in altrusitic behavior if the indirect benefits derived from this act are greater than its cost

133
Q

hamilton’s rule equation

A

Br- C>0

B- benefit to recipient
r- coefficient of relatedness
C- cost to the donor

134
Q

coefficient of relationship

A

probabillity of the homologous alleles in two indivudals are indentical by descent from recent common ancestor

when r is higher, individuals are more closely related

135
Q

under hamilton’s rules

fitness has two components

A

direct fitness- reproductive success of the individuals and their offspring

indirect fitness - reproductive success of the individuals relatives

136
Q

inclusive fitness

A

direct and indirect fitness of an individual

137
Q

kin selection

A

a process by which a behavioral act is facored due to its beneficial effects on relatives

organisms are more likely to perform altruistic acts toward their relatives

altruistic behavior is a result of kin selection

natural selection that favors indirect fitness of individuals

138
Q

reciprocal altruism

A

altruistic behaviors evolved among unrelated individuals through repeated reciprocal interactions

related or unrelated and very rare

an individual helos another individual with expepectation that it will be retrurned

139
Q

kin recognition

A

abillity to recognize and identify close relatives

closely related

direct and indirect

140
Q

Can kin selection occur without kin recognition?

A

yes

141
Q

direct kin recognition

A

based on a specific chemical vocal or other cues

142
Q

indirect kin recognition

A

like a location of a nest

think about the cuckoo bird video from lecture

143
Q

parent offsrping conflict

A

conflict may occur when parents an offspring disagree abt. fitness interests

types: weaning conflict and sibicide

144
Q

what conditions can reciprocal altruism evolve

A
  1. benefit to the recipient of act is greater than cost to the actor
  2. capable of recognizing each otther
  3. repeated interaction between individuals
145
Q

weaning conflict

A

disagreements between parents and offspring abt the amt and duration of parental provisioning

each offspring will demand more investment, where parents want to give equal investment

146
Q

siblicide

A

extreme sibling rivalry where they will attack and kill each other in different occasions

found in masked and blue footed booby

147
Q

eusociality

A

extreme form of altruism
nonreproducive individuals participate in the cooperative care of young

ants, bees etc

overlapping gens. between parents and offspring
cooperative brood care
specialized group of non repoductive individuals

148
Q
A

BIOS 230 (4 decks)

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