Exam Revision Flashcards
This deck covers ALL of the key terms that you will need to know for the Unit 3 and 4 Psychology Exam. I would recommend writing down your answers on a sheet of paper to keep yourself accountable. The page numbers align to the Edrolo textbook. Have fun!
Acculturative stress
stress that results from the challenges presented by adapting to a new and foreign culture p.103
Accuracy
the precision with which a person completes a task p. 269
Acquisition
when a response or behaviour is first learned p. 157
Action potential
the neural message, in the form of an electrical impulse, sent down the axon of a neuron when certain conditions are met p. 86
Action stage
during this stage the individual has made distinct behaviour change for less than six months p. 462
Adequate diet
a diet in which a person is provided with the nutrients and energy required to function healthily and effectively p. 455
Adequate sleep
having enough and the right type of uninterrupted REM and NREM sleep in order to function healthily and effectively p. 455
Adrenaline
(also known as epinephrine) a neurohormone that increases physiological arousal and contributes to the consolidation of emotionally arousing memories p. 143
Adversity
the experience of a difficult or distressing situation p. 454
Affect
the expression of emotions p. 319
Agonist
a type of drug that imitates neurotransmitters and works to initiate a neural response (excitatory or inhibitory) when it binds to the receptor sites of a neuron p. 439
Aim
a statement outlining the purpose of the study p. 3
Alarm reaction
the first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome which involves the body?s initial decline and then rise in arousal to a stressor p. 109
Allocation
the process of assigning participants to conditions in the experiment for the research p. 19
Alpha waves
medium sized brain waves with medium-high frequency and low-medium amplitude, indicating an alert but relaxed state p. 276
Altered states of consciousness (ASC)
a state of consciousness that is characterised by different levels of awareness as compared to normal waking consciousness p. 254
Alzheimer?s disease
a neurodegenerative disease that involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain and is characterised by memory decline p. 219
Amplified emotional response
disproportionate emotional reactions in response to an event or stimuli p. 319
Amplitude
a measurement indicating the intensity of an electric current in the brain, visually represented as the height of the wave peaks p. 275
Amygdala
a brain structure involved in encoding and consolidating emotionally charged memories p. 205
Amyloid plaques
fragments of the protein beta-amyloid that accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons p. 220
Antagonist
a type of drug that works to prevent a neural response (excitatory or inhibitory) by blocking the receptor sites of a neuron p. 439
Antecedent
a stimulus that causes a voluntary behaviour to occur p. 171
Anterograde amnesia
a condition where new explicit memories cannot be effectively consolidated after trauma to the hippocampus p. 219
Anxiety
a psychological and physiological response that involves feelings of worry and apprehension p. 424
Appraisal
an assessment or evaluation p. 115
Approach strategies
coping strategies which confront the source of the stressor p. 123
Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory
a model of memory which outlines the flow of information in memory formation and retrieval through three separate stores of memory; sensory, short-term and long-term, each of which have a different function, capacity and duration p. 195
Attention
the first stage of observational learning. Learners must actively focus on the model in order to learn p. 180
Automatic processes
(also known as automatic tasks) tasks that require low levels of mental processing p. 259
Autonomic nervous system
the branch of the PNS responsible for connecting the CNS and the body?s visceral (non-skeletal) organs, muscles and glands like the heart and liver p. 67
Avoidance strategies
coping strategies that evade the stressor, seeking to reduce stress by indirectly dealing with it p. 123
Axon
the long strand-like part of a neuron that transmits a message from one end of the neuron to the other p. 82
Axon terminals
the ends of a neuron that release a message into the synapse p. 82
Bar chart
a graph that depicts the relationship between two variables using rectangular bars p. 41
Behaviour
a voluntary action in response to an antecedent p. 171
Benign-positive
an initial appraisal of a stimulus as neutral or good, and not causing stress for the individual p. 115
Benzodiazepines
a type of short-acting anti-anxiety medication that works to reduce anxiety p. 438
Beta waves
fast, small brain waves with high frequency and low amplitude, indicating high levels of alertness p. 276
Biological protective factors
factors that increase resilience by supporting healthy physiological functioning p. 455
Biological risk factors
factors relating to the body that increase the risk of developing a mental health disorder p. 391
Biological stress response
the activation of autonomic nervous system responses in the face of a stressor p. 431
Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)
a measure of how much alcohol is in a person?s blood p. 325
Brain
the body?s information centre, responsible for initiating and processing actions, thoughts and behaviour
Brain surgery
the treatment of brain injury or disease with the use of medical instruments p. 218
Brain trauma
damage to the brain that is caused by an external force p. 218
Brain wave
a pattern of electrical current in the brain caused by neurons communicating, visually represented as a wave p. 274
Breathing retraining
a method used to teach someone breathing control techniques that they can apply when facing their phobic stimulus p. 439
Bright light therapy
a method used to adjust a person?s circadian rhythm through exposure to a high-intensity light source p. 345
Case study
an in-depth study of an individual or a group of individuals p. 10
Catastrophes that disrupt whole communities
largescale events or upheavals that affect an interconnected population p. 104
Catastrophic thinking
a kind of cognitive bias in which a stimulus or event is predicted to be far worse than it is likely to be in reality p. 433
Central nervous system
the brain and the spinal cord, responsible for transmitting neural messages to and receiving neural messages from the peripheral nervous system p. 66
Cerebellum
a brain structure which encodes and stores implicit procedural memories p. 205
Cerebral cortex
a brain structure where long-term memories are stored p. 204
Challenge
a further appraisal of a stressor as potentially providing a good opportunity for growth or change for the individual p. 115
Choosing an experimental research design
the process of choosing an appropriate experimental research design in order to reduce possible extraneous and confounding variables p. 24
Circadian phase disorder
a sleep disorder which interferes with the normal regulation of the circadian rhythm of sleep, leading to a change in the sleep-wake cycle p. 331
Circadian rhythm
changes to physiological function or activity that occur as part of a cycle that lasts around 24 hours p. 292
Classical conditioning
a model of learning in which organisms learn through the involuntary association of two or more stimuli p. 154, 432
Classically conditioned memory
a type of implicit memory which involves an involuntary response, such as fear, to a stimulus which has repeatedly been associated with an emotionally arousing stimulus p. 204
Cognition
the mental processes an individual performs in order to understand and process information p. 320, 326
Cognitive and behavioural strategies
the techniques of cognitive behavioural therapy used to promote an individual?s psychological resilience p. 456
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
a form of psychotherapy which encourages individuals to substitute unhealthy cognitions and behaviours with more healthy ones. p. 344, 441
Cognitive bias
a predisposition to think about and process information in a certain way p. 433
Cognitive tasks
a form of assessment that measures some aspect of a person?s thought processes p. 269
Concentration
the ability to focus on certain stimuli or tasks p. 326
Conclusion
a statement regarding the results of an investigation as to whether the hypothesis was supported or not p. 47
Conditioned emotional responses
an emotional response to a stimulus that doesn?t naturally produce that response, learned through the process of classical conditioning p. 165
Conditioned response (CR)
a response caused by the conditioned stimulus p. 155
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
a stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus p. 155
Confidentiality
the right of the participant for their personal details to remain private p. 31
Confounding variables
variables other than the independent variable that have directly and systematically had an effect on the dependent variable p. 23
Consciousness
the awareness of internal and external stimuli p. 253
Consciousness continuum
a progression of states of consciousness ranging from least aware to most aware
Consequence
an event following an action that makes it either more or less likely to occur again p. 171
Contemplation stage
during this stage the individual is aware that their behaviour is problematic or unhealthy and is considering taking action within the next six months, but has no active commitment to do so p. 462
Content limitations
a restraint placed on the thoughts that are occurring in a person?s mind p. 259
Context dependent cues
stimuli in the physical environment where a memory is recalled that act as a prompt to retrieve memories formed in that environment p. 224
Context-specific effectiveness
when the coping strategy or mechanism used is appropriate for the demands of the stressor p. 121
Control group
a group that is used as a basis for comparison; participants are not exposed to the experimental conditions (the IV) p. 12
Controlled processes
(also known as controlled tasks) tasks that require high levels of mental processing p. 259
Convenience sampling
when a sample is selected using the quickest and easiest means possible, selecting people who are readily available from the population p. 18
Coping
the process of dealing with stress p. 115, 121
Coping flexibility
an individual?s ability to adjust or change their coping strategies depending on the unique and changing demands of a stressor p. 122
Coritsol
a hormone released into the body in times of stress p. 109
Counterbalancing
a method used in repeated-measures experimental designs to reduce order effects p. 24
Cross-sectional study
when data is collected from participants from different segments of the population (pre-existing cohorts) to represent a ?snapshot? in time p. 10
Cued recall
retrieving information from memory with the use of a prompt p. 231
Cumulative risk
the significantly increased risk of developing a mental health disorder that occurs when an individual has multiple risk factors present in their lives at the same time p. 412
Daily pressures
small inconveniences and problems that are experienced as a part of day-to-day life p. 103
Debriefing
occurs at the conclusion of an experiment and involves the researcher outlining the nature of the experiment to participants and includes ensuring that participants do not leave the experiment with lasting harm p. 31
Deception
when the participant is unaware of the true nature of the experiment p. 31
Delta waves
slow and large brain waves with low frequency and high amplitude, indicating very low levels of alertness p. 276
Dendrites
the bushy spines of a neuron that receive a message p. 82
Dependent variable (DV)
the variable that is being measured in an experiment for changes it experiences due to the independent variable p. 4
Depressants
a class of drugs that reduce central nervous system and body activity, reducing levels of alertness compared to NWC p. 277
Descriptive statistics
statistics that are used to organise and summarise data p. 40
Disorganised attachment
the inconsistent behaviour displayed by an infant towards their main caregiver when they are not provided with consistent and adequate support p. 407
Distress
a form of stress characterised by a negative psychological state p. 102
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter primarily responsible for the coordination of voluntary movement and experiences of pleasure and pain p. 92
Double-blind procedure
a procedure in which both the participants and the person conducting the experiment are unaware of which condition participants have been allocated to, in order to reduce experimenter bias p. 25
Dyssomnias
sleep disorders characterised by consistent problems with falling asleep, staying asleep, or timing sleep p. 337
Echoic memory
a type of sensory memory which temporarily stores auditory information p. 195
Elaborative rehearsal
encoding new information by meaningfully linking it to information already stored in long-term memory to enhance its storage and later retrieval p. 225
Electro-oculograph (EOG)
a device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the muscles surrounding the eyes p. 268
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
a device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain p. 267
Electromyograph (EMG)
a device that detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the body?s muscles
Emotion-focussed coping
the use of coping strategies that target the emotional components of a stressor, dealing with it indirectly rather than confronting its source p. 115
Emotional awareness
the understanding and control people have over their feelings, as well as the ability to accurately perceive the emotions of others p. 261
Emotional wellbeing
the ability for an individual to appropriately control and express their own emotions in an adaptive way, as well as understand the emotions of others p. 367
Encoding
the process of converting raw information from stimuli into a useable form which can be stored in the brain p. 195
Episodic memory
a type of explicit memory which involves a personal experience or event p. 203
Ethics committee
a group of people who review research proposals, consider the potential risks, benefits and implications in order to either approve or disapprove them for research p. 30
Eustress
a form of stress characterised by a positive psychological state p. 103
Evolutionary theory of sleep
(also known as Circadian theory of sleep) a theory that proposes that sleep is adaptive and has evolved to meet specific survival needs p. 298
Excitatory effect
when a neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to become more likely to fire an action potential p. 86
Exercise
the performance of physical activity to improve a person?s health and wellbeing p. 122, 440
Exhaustion
the final stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome which involves the body?s defences and energy levels depleting, leading to a greatly reduced ability to cope with current and future stressors p. 109
Experiment
a study conducted in a carefully controlled environment to measure the cause and effect relationship between variables p. 9
Experimental group
the group within an experiment that are exposed to experimental conditions (the IV) p. 12
Experimenter effects
occur when an experimenter?s expectations about the study influence the results p. 25
Explicit memory
(also known as declarative memory) a type of long-term memory that can be consciously retrieved p. 203
External factors
factors which arise from the environment of an individual and contribute to their mental health p. 360
External validity
the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to other settings, people and time p. 49
Extinction
when a learned response or behaviour no longer occurs for an extended period of time p. 157, 173
Extraneous variables
variables other than the independent variable that may produce unwanted results in an experiment p. 23
Eye-witness testimony
an account given by an individual of an event they have directly observed p. 237
Fight-flight-freeze response
The fight, flight, or freeze (tonic immobility) response refers to involuntary physiological changes that happen in the body and mind when a person feels threatened. This response exists to keep people safe, preparing them to face, escape, or hide from danger.
Free recall
retrieving information from memory in any order without the use of a prompt p. 231
Frequency
a measurement indicating how many brain waves there are per second, visually represented as how close the waves appear together p. 275
Functioning
the way in which an individual approaches everyday demands and operates within their environment p. 366
GABA
the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter p. 86
GABA dysfunction
an insufficient neural transmission or reception of GABA in the body p. 431
General Adaptation Syndrome
a model that examines the biological stages of stress involved in responding to a persistent stressor p. 109
Generalisability
the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to the wider research population p. 48
Genetic vulnerability
a person?s genetic predisposition that increases their susceptibility to developing a mental health disorder p. 392
Glutamate
the primary excitatory neurotransmitter p. 87, 143
Harm loss
a further appraisal of a stressor as having caused some damage for the individual p. 115
High levels of functioning
the ability for an individual to approach day-to-day tasks independently and effectively meet everyday demands p. 366
Hippocampus
a brain structure which encodes explicit memories p. 205
Hypothesis
a testable prediction about the outcome of an experiment; it is written in the form of a statement and includes the variables that will be tested p. 3
Iconic memory
a type of sensory memory which temporarily stores visual information p. 195
Impaired reasoning and memory
cognitive biases that limit a person?s ability to think about an event in a rational, constructive way and to remember it accurately p. 400
Implicit memory
(also known as non-declarative memory) a type of long-term memory that is retrieved unconsciously p. 203
Independent groups design
(also known as between groups design) an experimental design in which participants are split into two or more groups; typically a control group and an experimental groups p. 12
Independent variable (IV)
the variable that the experimenter manipulates in order to observe the effect it causes on the dependent variable p. 4
Induced altered states of consciousness
a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs due to a purposeful action or aid p. 254
Inferential statistics
statistics that provide information on the statistical significance of the results and suggest how they might apply to a wider population p. 40
Informed consent
ensuring participants have a thorough understanding of the procedures involved in the research they are partaking in, including potential harm or risks, and still willingly agree to participate p. 31, 373
Inhibitory effect
when a neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to become less likely to fire an action potential p. 86
Internal factors
factors which arise from within the individual and contribute to their mental health p. 360
Internal validity
the extent to which the changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable, and not other variables p. 49
Interneurons
neurons that transfer impulses between sensory and motor neurons as part of the reflex arc p. 77
Interview
a type of questionnaire that is usually conducted verbally, involving the researcher asking participants questions and recording their responses p. 9
Irrelevant
an initial appraisal of a stimulus as a non-issue for the individual p. 115
Jet lag
the mismatch between an individual?s internal circadian rhythm and the time of their environment, which occurs after rapidly travelling across time zones p. 333
Leading questions
questions that contain information that imply or prompt a certain response p. 237
Levels of awareness
(also known as awareness) the degree to which an individual is conscious of stimuli p. 258
Life events
stressors that change a person?s circumstances and force them to change something about their lifestyle p. 103
Line graph
a graph that depicts the relationship between two variables using a line that connects each data point p. 41
Lock-and-key process
an analogy used to describe the role and functions of neurotransmitters and receptor sites in the process of neural transmission p. 86
Long-term depression
the long-lasting and experience dependent weakening of postsynaptic responses p. 137
Long-term memory
store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time p. 197
Long-term potentiation
the long-lasting and experiencedependent strengthening of synaptic connections p. 137, 431
Longitudinal study
a type of investigation in which data is gathered from participants over an extended period of time, and the participants are followed up after specific time intervals p. 10
Loss of a significant relationship
losing a relationship that involved considerable emotional attachment p. 407
Maintenance rehearsal
repeating new information over and over again to functionally enhance the duration of short-term memory and transfer information to long-term memory p. 225
Maintenance stage
during this stage the individual has made distinct behaviour change for more than six months and is working to prevent relapse p. 462
Major stress
stressors that present significant and negative threats to a person?s psychological and/ or physiological wellbeing p. 104
Matched participants design
an experimental design in which participants are paired based upon relevant characteristics, whereupon one member of the pair is tested in one condition, and the other member is tested in the other p. 12
Mean
a measure of central tendency that represents the average of a data set p. 40
Memory
the process of encoding, storing and retrieving learned information p. 195
Memory bias
a form of cognitive bias caused by inaccuracy or exaggeration in the recall of an event p. 433
Mental health
the current state of a person?s psychological wellbeing and functioning p. 358
Mental health continuum
a tool used to track progression of mental health which constantly fluctuates over time, progressing from mentally healthy, to mental health problems, to mental health disorders p. 358
Mental health disorder
a psychological state characterised by the presence of a severe disturbance and sense of distress which significantly impacts an individual?s ability to function independently p. 359
Mental health problem
a psychological state that is temporarily hindered by the presence of a disturbance to normal functioning, which has negative, but not severe impacts on everyday functioning p. 359
Mentally healthy
a psychological state that allows an individual to function independently and effectively within their environment, display resilience and have high social and emotional wellbeing p. 359
Model
the individual who is performing the behaviour that is being watched/ observed p.179
Mood
the emotional state a person is in at a given time p. 326
Motivation
the fourth stage of observational learning. The learner must want to reproduce the behaviour in order for learning to occur p. 181
Motor neurons
neurons that transmit information (motor neural messages) about voluntary movement from the CNS to the PNS p. 67
Myelin
the fatty protein substance that surrounds and insulates the axon of a neuron p. 82
Naturally occurring altered states of consciousness
a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs without intervention p. 254
Negative reinforcement
when a stimulus is removed in order to encourage a behaviour to occur again p. 172
Neural plasticity
the ability of the brain to physically change in response to experience p. 136
Neural reception
the process in which a neuron accepts, or receives, a message p. 81
Neural transmission
the process in which a neuron sends a message p. 81
Neurodegenerative disease
a disease characterised by the progressive loss of neurons in the brain p. 219
Neurofibrillary tangles
an accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within neurons, which then inhibit the transport of essential substances throughout the neuron, eventually killing the neuron entirely p. 220
Neurohormone
a chemical substance sent from neurons into the bloodstream p. 142
Neuron
a nerve cell responsible for transmitting, receiving and processing information p. 81
Neurotransmitter
a chemical substance that carries information between neurons p. 85, 142
Neutral stimulus (NS)
a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response p. 155
No-harm principle
the role of the researcher to ensure that all participants within an investigation do not experience mental or physical harm p. 30
Non-standardised testing procedures
when instructions and procedures in an experiment are not consistent for all participants, therefore affecting the results obtained p. 26
Normal waking consciousness (NWC)
the state of being awake and aware of internal and external stimuli p. 253
NREM (Non rapid eye movement) sleep
a type of sleep that is subdivided into four different stages, where the sleeper does not experience any rapid eye movement p. 294
Objective data
data that can be observed or measured by multiple people and obtain the same results p. 36
Observational learning
(also known as social learning, vicarious conditioning, or modelling) a type of learning that occurs through watching the actions of a model and the consequences that their actions receive p. 179
Observational study
a type of study in which data is collected through careful monitoring of participants p. 10
Operant conditioning
learning through the association of a behaviour and the consequence it receives p. 170, 433
Operationalisation
the process of defining variables in terms of how they will be either manipulated or measured in the experiment p. 5
Order effects
(also known as practice effects) a source of error in repeated-measures designs due to the order the participants participate in the experimental and control conditions p. 24
Outlier
a value that differs from the other values in a data set p. 41
Parasomnias
a type of sleep disorder which involves engaging in abnormal activities or tasks while sleeping p. 338
Parasympathetic nervous system
a branch of the ANS responsible for returning and maintaining the body?s visceral organs, muscles and glands at optimal and balanced functioning p. 69
Parkinson?s disease
a progressive disease of the nervous system characterised by both motor and non-motor symptoms p. 92
Partial sleep deprivation
when an individual sleeps for some duration within a 24 hour period, but the sleep duration is too short, or the quality of sleep is poor p. 319
Participant-related variables
(also known as individual participant differences) individual participant differences that can affect the results p. 24
Perceptual and cognitive distortions
atypical (abnormal) variation in the way an individual interprets and processes stimuli p. 260
Peripheral nervous system
all nerves outside the CNS, responsible for transmitting information to and from the CNS p. 67
Perpetuating risk factor
a risk factor that inhibits a person?s ability to recover from a mental health disorder p. 387, 433
Placebo
a procedure or substance with no active treatment p. 25, 374
Placebo effect
changes to an individual?s mental or physical state as a result of a false belief in the effects of a placebo substance or procedure p. 35, 374
Poor response to medication
when medication is not effective due to genetic factors p. 392
Poor sleep
inadequate sleep quality or quantity p. 393
Population
(also known as research population) the group of people of interest to an experiment p. 3, 17
Positive punishment
when a stimulus is added in order to discourage a behaviour from occurring again p. 172
Positive reinforcement
when a stimulus is added in order to encourage a behaviour to occur again p. 172
Postsynaptic neuron
the neuron that receives a message from the synapse p. 82, 85
Pre-contemplation stage
during this stage the individual is unaware that their behaviour is problematic or unhealthy and has no intention to change their behaviour in the next six months p. 462
Precipitating risk factor
a risk factor that increases the susceptibility to and contributes to the occurrence of developing a mental health disorder p. 387, 432
Predisposing risk factor
a risk factor that increases an individual?s susceptibility to developing a mental health disorder p. 387
Preparation stage
during this stage the individual has begun to take an active commitment towards changing their behaviour within the next 30 days p. 462
Presynaptic neuron
the neuron that releases a message into the synapse p. 82, 85
Primacy effect
enhanced recall of information presented at the beginning of a list due to this information being rehearsed and transferred into long term memory p. 226
Primary appraisal
the initial process of evaluating the nature of an incoming stressor, specifically the kind of stress it will cause p. 115
Primary data collection
a method of data collection involving data being collected directly by the experimenter p. 35
Problem-focussed coping
the use of coping strategies that directly target the source of the stressor, aiming to reduce it in a practical way p. 115
Procedural memory
a type of implicit memory which involves knowing how to carry out tasks, facilitated by motor skills p. 203
Protective factor
a factor that prevents the occurrence or re-occurrence of mental health disorders p. 388, 455
Psychoeducation
teaching individuals to better understand mental disorders and how to deal with and treat them p. 443
Psychological construct
an agreed upon description and understanding of psychological phenomena which cannot be overtly measured or observed p. 252
Psychological protective factors
factors that promote resilience by supporting a person?s mental and cognitive functioning p. 456
Psychological risk factors
factors relating to cognitive and affective functioning that increase the risk of developing a mental health disorder p. 399
Punishment
(also known as positive punishment) a type of consequence that makes the behaviour less likely to occur again p. 172
Qualitative data
data that describes the characteristics of something; data of concepts that can be measured non-numerically p. 36
Quantitative data
data concerning numerical amounts; expressed numerically p. 36
Questionnaire
(also known as surveys) a list of questions that participants can respond to in a variety of formats p. 9
Random allocation
when every member of the sample has an equal chance of being assigned to each condition in an experiment p. 19
Random sampling
when every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample p. 18
Rating scale
a form of questionnaire collecting numerical data from participants? responses p. 10
Recall
a method of retrieving information from memory p. 231
Recency effect
enhanced recall of information presented at the end of a list due to this information remaining in short term memory p. 226
Receptor sites
protein molecules located on the dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron, responsible for receiving neurotransmitters p. 85
Recognition
identifying information from memory amongst a list of alternatives p. 232
Reconstruction
the process of reproducing and piecing together information from memory in an attempt to form a coherent representation of a past event or stimuli p. 233
Reinforcement
a type of consequence that makes the behaviour more likely to occur again p. 172, 181
Relapse
a setback involving the return to a problem behaviour p. 462
Relearning
learning information another time after having already learned this information in the past p. 232
Reliability
how likely it is that the same results would be obtained by another researcher p. 49
REM (Rapid eye movement) sleep
a type of sleep where the sleeper experiences rapid eye movement beneath closed eyelids p. 293
Repeated measures design
(also known as within groups design) an experimental design in which the same participants are in every condition of the experiment p. 12
Reproduction
the third stage of observational learning. The learner must have the physical and mental capabilities to reproduce the observed behaviour p. 180
Resilience
the ability to adapt to the environment and cope when stressors arise in order to return to a functioning state p. 368, 454
Resistance
the second stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome which involves the body sustaining high levels of arousal to a persistent stressor p. 109
Response cost
Negative punishment & when a stimulus is removed in order to discourage a behaviour occurring again p. 172
Restoration theory of sleep
a theory that proposes that sleep replenishes psychological and physiological function p. 299
Retention
the second stage of observational learning. The learner must create a mental representation and remember (retain) the behaviour the model has demonstrated p. 180
Retrieval
accessing information which has previously been stored in the brain p. 195
Retrieval cue
stimuli that act as a prompt to access information from long-term memory p. 224
Rumination
repeatedly focusing on negative psychological thoughts and experiences p. 400
Sample
a subset of the population, commonly referred to as the research participants p. 17
Sampling
the process through which the participants for a study are selected from the population of interest p. 17
Sampling procedures
the method of choosing an appropriate sampling procedure to reduce possible extraneous and confounding variables p. 24
Secondary appraisal
the process of evaluating the resources available and required in order to cope with a stressor p. 115
Self-control
A person?s ability to restrain or hold composure over their thoughts, feelings and actions p. 261
Self-efficacy
a person?s confidence in their ability to complete tasks and meet goals p. 401
Self-report
a participant?s subjective account of an experience; this type of investigation can be conducted through the use of a questionnaire, interview or rating scale p. 9
Semantic memory
a type of explicit memory which consists of general knowledge or facts p. 203
Sensory memory
store of memory which very briefly stores raw information detected by the senses such as sight, hearing and touch p. 195
Sensory neurons
neurons that transmit information (sensory neural messages) about the body?s sensations from the PNS to the CNS p. 67
Sensory receptor
a nerve ending that detects sensations in the environment and body p. 70
Sensory stimuli
anything in the environment or body that is detected by the body?s senses p. 70
Serial position effect
a tendency for free recall to be superior for items at the end and beginning of a list compared to items in the middle p. 226
Serial recall
retrieving information from memory in the order in which it was first encoded p. 231
Shift work
an occupation which involves working at unusual hours, such as working overnight p. 332
Short-term memory
(also known as working memory) store of memory which holds information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated p. 196
Single-blind procedure
a procedure in which participants are unaware of which condition they have been allocated to, in order to reduce participant expectations p. 25
Skeletal muscles
muscles connected to the skeleton that are involved in conscious, voluntary movement p. 68
Sleep
a regular and naturally-occurring altered state of consciousness that involves disengagement with internal and external stimuli p. 292
Sleep cycle
a proportion of a sleep episode in which the sleeper progresses through stages of REM and NREM sleep, lasting on average 90 minutes for humans p. 293
Sleep deprivation
inadequate duration or poor quality of sleep p. 318
Sleep diaries
a record from an individual containing qualitative descriptions of the amount and nature of their sleep over a certain period of time p. 269
Sleep disorder
a consistent presence of a particular sleep disturbance which has profound impacts on an individual?s sleep, leading to persistent effects on day to day functioning p. 337
Sleep episode
the full duration of time spent asleep p. 293
Sleep-onset insomnia
(also known as insomnia) a type of dyssomnia characterised by consistent difficulty initiating sleep p. 338
Sleep-wake cycle
a daily cycle that is made up of time spent sleeping and time being awake and alert p. 292
Sleep-wake cycle shift in adolescence
a type of circadian phase disorder where adolescents experience delayed sleep-onset and hence delayed wake p. 332
Sleep-walking
(also known as somnambulism) a type of parasomnia which involves standing up and undertaking actions or tasks while asleep p. 338
Social protective factors
factors that increase resilience by providing social support p. 456
Social risk factors
factors relating to an individual?s interaction with their external environment and other people that increase the risk of developing a mental health disorder p. 406
Social support
the provision of assistance and care from family, friends, or the community p. 456
Social wellbeing
the ability for an individual to form bonds with others and maintain positive relationships p. 367
Somatic nervous system
the branch of the PNS responsible for sending motor information from the CNS to the body?s skeletal muscle, and bringing sensory information from the body to the CNS in order to formulate voluntary responses p. 67
Specific environmental triggers
stimuli or experiences in a person?s environment that prompt an extreme stress response p. 433
Specific phobia
a type of anxiety disorder that is categorised by excessive and disproportionate fear when encountering a particular stimulus p. 425
Speed
the rate at which a person responds to a stimulus in a task p. 269
Spinal cord
a long cable of nerve tissue (neurons) connecting the brain to the peripheral nervous system, responsible for sending motor information from the brain, and sensory information from the body p. 66
Spinal reflex
an unconscious response to sensory stimuli that is initiated at the spinal cord, not involving the brain p. 76
Spinal sensory-motor circuit (reflex arc)
the path that neural messages take as part of the spinal reflex response, involving sensory messages to the spinal cord which are immediately relayed from the spinal cord as motor messages p. 77
Spontaneous recovery
the return of a previously extinguished learned response or behaviour p. 157, 173
Standard deviation
a measure of central tendency that represents the spread of data around the mean p. 40
Standardised instructions and procedures
the consistent use of instructions and procedures for all participants p. 26
State dependent cues
aspects of an individual?s psychological and physiological experience at the time a memory was formed that later act as a prompt to retrieve that memory p. 224
Stigma
a mark of shame or disgrace experienced by an individual for a characteristic that distinguishes them from others p. 408
Stigma around seeking treatment
the sense of shame a person might feel about getting professional help p. 434
Stimulants
a class of drugs that increase central nervous system and body activity, increasing levels of alertness compared to NWC p. 276
Stimulus discrimination
the process in which an organism only demonstrates a certain response or behaviour to the stimulus it was first acquired in response to p. 158, 173
Stimulus generalisation
a process in which the learner demonstrates a response or behaviour to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus or antecedent p. 158, 173
Storage
retaining converted information so it can be accessed and used in the future p. 195
Stratified sampling
when the population is divided into groups based upon relevant characteristics, and participants are selected from each group in proportion to how they appear in the population p. 18
Stress
a psychological and biological experience that occurs when an individual encounters something of significance that demands their attention and/ or efforts to cope p. 102, 401, 424
Stressful
an initial appraisal of a stimulus as a source of worry or emotional significance for the individual p. 115
Stressor
a stimulus (internal or external) that prompts the stress response p. 102
Subjective data
data that relies on personal opinion or self-report p. 36
Substance use
use of either legal or illegal drugs p. 393
Sympathetic nervous system
a branch of the ANS responsible for activating the body?s visceral organs, muscles, and glands for increased activity or when under threat p. 69
Synapse
the area in which neuronal transmission occurs between two neurons, including the sending end of the presynaptic neuron, the gap between two neurons, and receiving end of the postsynaptic neuron p. 82, 85
Synaptic gap
the space in between two neurons into which a message is sent p. 82, 85
Synaptic buttons
(also known as synaptic knobs, terminal buttons) the end of the presynaptic neuron?s axon terminals that release neurotransmitters p. 85
Synaptic plasticity
a type of neural plasticity that refers to the ability of synaptic connections to form, weaken or strengthen in response to activity and experience p. 137
Systematic desensitisation
a therapy technique used to overcome phobia involving a patient being exposed incrementally to increasingly anxiety-inducing stimuli, combined with the use of relaxation techniques. p. 441
Table
a method of presenting data using columns and rows p. 41
The biopsychosocial model
a framework for approaching mental health that suggests that biological, psychological and social factors all interact and contribute to the development of mental illness p. 391
The Four P model
a framework to understand the impact of different factors on the development and progression of a mental health disorder p. 386
Theta waves
medium sized brain waves with low-medium frequency and medium-high amplitude, indicating low levels of alertness p. 276
Threat
a further appraisal of a stressor as potentially causing damage for the individual in future p. 115
Time orientation
the perception of how much or how little time has elapsed, and the ability to situate things in the past, present or future p. 261
Total sleep deprivation
(also known as full sleep deprivation) when an individual has no sleep within a 24 hour period p. 318
Transtheoretical model of behaviour change
a model which assesses an individual?s readiness to change by looking at the different stages an individual may progress through as they move towards healthier behaviour p. 461
Ultradian rhythm
changes to physiological function or activity that arise as part of a cycle which occurs within 24 hours p. 293
Unconditioned response (UCR)
a natural (unlearned) behaviour to a given stimulus p. 155
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response p. 155
Validity
the extent to which the investigation measures what it intends to measure p. 49
Variable
a factor or element of an experiment that may be manipulated or measured p. 3
Video monitoring
a type of data collection involving video and sound recordings of an individual in their sleeping period p. 270
Visceral muscles (organs or glands)
the body?s non-skeletal muscles, organs and glands that are largely self-regulating and don?t require conscious control. These are controlled by the ANS p. 68
Voluntary participation
the right of the participant to freely choose to willingly participate p. 31
Voluntary response
an action coordinated by the body that is performed with conscious control and intention p. 70
Wellbeing
a state in which an individual is mentally, physically, and socially healthy and secure p. 367
Withdrawal rights
the right of the participant to leave the study at any point, without fear of consequence p. 31
Zeitgeber
a rhythmically occurring natural phenomenon which acts as a cue in the regulation of the body’s circadian rhythms.
