Exam prep week 9 (qualitative and quantitative data collection) - wk 10 (Ethics in Nursing) Flashcards
What are the 2 data collection methods in qualitative research?
Direct
Indirect
Explain the ‘direct’ data collection method for qualitative research
Most common in qualitative research
Recordable spoken or written words
Observable body language, actions & interactions
i.e. whatever can be observed or communicated
Explain the ‘indirect’ data collection method for qualitative research
Generated by some other person or people
eg documents, photographs reporting an event
Qualitative Data Collection Methods include?
Interviews
Journal entries/other written data
Observation (generally participant)
Examination of documents
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviews include
Individuals Direct encounter Phone interviews Via email Non-scheduled Groups (focus groups)
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Interviewing considerations
How structured: -unstructured
- semi-structured - structured
How recorded: eg digital (audio/video), notes
Where held: eg home, workplace, phone
Ethical issues (confidentiality, vulnerability)
Informed consent
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Benefits of Interviews
Provide researcher with opportunity to enter world of participant
Offer unique data
Potentially productive opportunity
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Journal Entries
Obtain information about dynamic processes before experience forgotten
Rely upon commitment, time & neatness of participant
Can be difficult to read & analyse data
Open-ended questions may provide helpful data
Ethical issues: confidentiality
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Observation
Observing daily life & behaviours
Data in more natural circumstances
More prone to subjective interpretation
Ethical issues: confidentiality, vulnerability
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Documents and Records
Patient notes
Historical documents
Qualitative Data Collection Methods: Rigor/Trustworthiness
Strict process of data collection & analysis reflected in:
Credibility (truthfulness)
Auditability (consistency)
Transferability (fittingness/applicability)
Confirmability (no bias or distortion)
Two major ways for error to be introduced in qualitative research:
- Data collection
2. Data analysis
(Exam)
Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Credibility
Overlaps with transferability and trustworthiness
Triangulation
Refers to confidence in truth of findings
Uses member checks with participants and other researchers
(Exam)
Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Auditability
Accountability of researchers
Use audit trail
Careful recording of all decisions made regarding design plan, sampling, data collection and analysis
(Exam)
Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Transferability
Extent to which findings applicable to different population
Differs from generalisability: focus not on predicting specific outcomes
Rather focus on confirming what was meaningful in one specific setting/group also meaningful in another
External checks to ensure findings applicable to other groups/settings
(Exam)
Qualitative Data Collection Methods need to include: Confirmability
Consistency & repeatability
Data collection process clearly documented - Audit trails
Use of computer software to organise and analyse data
(exam)
What are the 4 aspects of Rigor/Trustworthiness?
- Credibility
- Auditability
- Transferability
- Confirmability
To achieve trustworthiness in qualitative research…
Researcher competence
Transparency of research process (decision trail)
Congruence between philosophical and methodological approaches for the study
Data Collection in Quantitative Research measures?
Measures variables clearly, specifically and accurately
Measures variables numerically- can be statistically analysed
Measurement of Variables
Use objective measures
Distinguish between independent (predictor) & dependent (outcome) variables
Occurs with reference to operational definition of the variable (not theoretical)
Must result in numbers for statistical analysis
The 2 variables are?
Independent (predictor)
eg. the medication
Dependent (outcome)
eg. did the medication work? /fix the problem?
Variable example: Does the amount of study affect student’s test results?
Independent variable?
Dependent variable?
Independent variable?
= Study
Dependent variable?
= test results
What are the 4 Quantitative Data Collection Methods?
Physiologic/laboratory-based
Observational
Questions & self-report scales- questionnaires
Interviews
Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Physiologic/Laboratory-based Measures
Carefully described to demonstrate appropriateness
Describe measures to ensure consistency
Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Observations
Systematic
Focus on specific areas carefully defined in data collection instrument
Must be consistently reproduced- require adequate detail in description
Quantitative Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires
To collect data
Scales (eg Carer Satisfaction Scale- CSS)
Items
Response options examples:
(Dichotomous - Yes/NO, Male/Female
Likert - scale 1 - 5
Visual analogue - excellent to bad
Quantitative Data Collection Methods: Questionnaires example
Instrument: specifies & objectifies the process of data collection
eg Written instructions for a focused observation of behaviours indicating pain
Questionnaire: instrument completed by study subjects
eg 3 page written form asking subjects about their personal characteristics, medications, past medical history & pain
Scale: set of written questions/statements that measures a specific variable
eg 3 questions that ask subjects to rate how often they experience pain in different situations
Item: individual question/statement that comprises a scale
eg how often do you wake up at night due to pain
0=never 1=rarely 2=occasionally 3=frequently
Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Error
Refers to error in measurement
May result from measurement process itself
May result from quality of the measures: reliability & validity
Quantitative Data Collection Methods:
Measurement Error
Reliability: consistency in measurement
Validity: extent to which it measures that which it purports to measure
Reliability means:
that a measure can be relied upon consistently to give the same result if the aspect being measured has not changed
Summary of Reliability
The reliability of a measure reflects how definite we can be that the measure will yield the same data consistently if the actual or “real” variable stays the same
Reliability: explain…
Inter-rater, test-retest, internal consistency
Inter-rater:
2 or more independent data collectors agree in the results of their data collection
Test-retest:
expect consistency in the answers (on a scale or questionnaire) at different time points
Internal consistency:
the extent to which responses to a scale/questionnaire are similar and related
(Exam)
Validity
Validity reflects how accurately the measure yields information about the true or real variable being measured.
A measure is valid if it measures correctly and accurately what it is intended to measure
eg. does the sphygmomanometer give accurate results every time
Summary of Reliability and Validity
Reliability: focuses on the consistency of a measure
Validity: focuses on the accuracy/correctness of a measure
Internal/External Validity
Findings must be believable & dependable
Two important criteria:
internal validity
External validity
Internal Validity
Refers to whether intervention (independent variable) had real measurable effect on outcome (dependent) variable
Need to minimise threats to this eg:
selection bias
mortality
Maturation
Problems with instrumentation
Internal Validity: selection bias mortality Maturation Problems with instrumentation
Selection bias: sample needs to be representative of population. Self-selection a problem
Mortality: participants drop out of study
Maturation: Developmental, biological or psychological processes of individual that change over time- may affect study variable
Instrumentation: Changes in measurement or observation techniques- may influence measurement
External Validity
Refers to generalisability of findings to other populations &/or settings
Factors affecting related to:
selection of participants: selection bias, mortality, maturation
study conditions
types of observations
Ethics in Research
Protecting rights of subjects
Balance of benefits and risks
Informed consent
Ethics committee review
History of Ethical Codes in Research
WW11- German Doctors’ criminal experiments without consent
Led to Nuremberg Code (1946)
Universal declaration of Human Rights (1948)
World Medical Association: International Code of Medical Ethics
Declaration of Geneva (1949)
Declaration of Helsinki (1964)
UNESCO: Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005)
Nuremberg Code (1946)
Voluntary consent
Protection of subjects from harm
Benefits vs risks
Qualified researchers
Declaration Of Helsinki (1964)
Most recent version 2008
Duty to protect life, health, privacy & dignity
Proposal submitted to independent ethics committee for approval
Special provisions for children & other groups unable to give consent
Unethical Studies
Tuskagee Syphillis Trial (1932-62)
Cervical Cancer Study NZ 1966
Autonomy & Individual Responsibility (Informed Consent)
No coercion, overt/implied
Participants have enough information
Information should be understandable to participants
Elements of Informed Consent
Title of agency Invitation to participate Basis for participant selection Study purpose/aim Explanation of procedures Description of risks/benefits Access to treatment and compensation if injury occurs Voluntary participation Right to withdraw Assurance of confidentiality/anonymity Conflicts of interests declared Offer to answer any questions Names & contacts of researchers, institution, ethics committee Concluding statement Separate consent form
Informed Consent for Children
Children, parents/guardians/caregivers must all be fully informed in appropriate manner
Children advised of rights
Children given opportunity to ask questions
Person signing must also be advised of rights & given opportunity for questions
Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality
Privacy: concealment of all matters relating to the participants
Anonymity- no one should be able to identify study participants
Confidentiality- identities of subjects not linked to information provided: use of codes
Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:
- Privacy
Refers to keeping matters concealed- making sure not made public
Legal AND ethical requirement in Australia
Australian researchers must adhere to State and Federal laws
Involves protecting anonymity and confidentiality
Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:
- Anonymity
No person should be able to identify individuals in study
Not always possible with qualitative research
Can use pseudonyms (assumed names) or number codes
Geographical issues may hinder anonymity
Part of informed consent should alert participants to possibility of lack of anonymity
Privacy, Anonymity & Confidentiality:
- Confidentiality
Identities of participants not linked to information provided
Data must be securely stored
Can be challenges in qualitative research
Justice and Beneficence
Justice: risks and benefits distributed evenly
Beneficence: do good/prevent harm
Human Vulnerability & Personal Integrity
Protection of vulnerable groups: Homeless Refugees Children Prisoners Intellectual disability Ethnic minorities Pregnant women Dying patients
Respect for Cultural Diversity
Ethnicity Sexual orientation Religious affiliation Employment status Disability Age
Researcher Integrity & Honesty
Critical for conduct, reporting & publication of studies
Number of cases of previous research misconduct
Includes: fabrication, falsification, plagiarism
Does not include honest error or differences of opinion
Multiple Cases of False Claims/Unethical Drug Trials
Tobacco industry: falsification of addictive nature of nicotine & passive smoking experiments
Pharmaceutical industry: Thalidomide & unethical third world drug trials
Fabricated results of stem cell research
Legal & Ethical regulatory Mechanisms
International agreement but ensuring adherence problematic
NH&MRC
Agencies for ethical considerations of indigenous populations eg Western Australian Aboriginal Health Information & Ethics Committee (WAAHIEC)
Clinical trials in Australia must adhere to legal requirements of Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA)
Evaluating & Monitoring Ethical Issues in Nursing Research
Standards for Research for the Nursing Profession (1990s)
Frequently re-endorsed by ANF
Ensure accountability for nursing research
Complementary to NH&MRC Guidelines
National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (NH&MRC 2007)
(Def in the exam) Critiquing Ethical Aspects of Research Reports
Ethics committee approval Informed consent Protection of subjects Subjects informed about purpose & nature of study Potential risks Benefits outweigh risks No coercion Privacy/anonymity/ confidentiality
Ethics in Nursing Research
Objectives:
State the major ethical considerations for a researcher when conducting a study
Understand and elaborate on the core principles involved in research ethics
Discuss the principles involved in critiquing the ethical considerations in a research report
