Exam One Flashcards
1
Q
Psychology
A
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
2
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Behavior and mental processes
A
Encompasses thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning
3
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Behavioral genetics
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Studies the inheritance of traits related to behavior
4
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Behavioral neuroscience
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Examines the biological basis of behavior
5
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Clinical psychology
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Deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders
6
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Cognitive psychology
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Focuses on the study of higher mental processes
7
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Counseling psychology
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Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems
8
Q
Cross-cultural psychology
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Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups
9
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Developmental psychology
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Examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death
10
Q
Educational psychology
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Concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and school performance
11
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Environmental psychology
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Considers the relationship between people and their physical environment
12
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Evolutionary psychology
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Considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
13
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Experimental psychology
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Studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
14
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Forensic psychology
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Focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories
15
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Health psychology
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Explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease
16
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Industrial psychology
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Concerned with the psychology of the workplace
17
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Personality psychology
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Focuses on the consistency in people’s behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another
18
Q
Program evaluation
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Focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as the head start preschool program, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals
19
Q
Psychology of women
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Focuses on issues such as discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women
20
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School psychology
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Devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems
21
Q
Social psychology
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The study of how people’s thoughts, feeling, and actions are affected by others
22
Q
Sport psychology
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Applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise
23
Q
How many active psychologists are working in the United States today?
A
Nearly 200,000
24
Q
What percentage of the world’s psychologists are in the United States?
A
20-24%
25
What is the ratio of female psychologists to male psychologists?
2.1:1
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What percentage of psychologists are from a racial minority group?
16%
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PhD
A research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation
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PsyD
Obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders
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Psychiatrists
have medical degrees and specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, often using treatments that involve the prescription of drugs
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7,000 years ago, what did people assume psychological problems to be caused by?
Evil spirits
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trephining
chipping a hole in a patients skull with crude instruments
- in old days: was used to allow spirits trapped inside a persons body to escape
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Who established the first experimental laboratory devoted to psychological phenomena?
Wilhelm Wundt
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Structuralism
focused on uncovering the fundamental mental components of perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
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Who developed structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt
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Introspection
A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus
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Why did scientists do away with introspection and structuralism?
there were few ways that an observer could confirm the accuracy of others' introspections
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functionalism
early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does - the functions of mental activity - and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments
38
Who led the functionalists?
William James
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Gestalt psychology
focuses on the organization of perception through a series of principles describing how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes
40
what group of psychologists proposed that " the whole is different from the sum of its parts"?
gestalt
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Margaret Washburn
first woman to receive a doctorate in psychology (doing work in animal behavior)
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Mary Calkins
studied memory in the early part of the 20th century; became first female president of the American Psychological Association
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What is the common goal of psychology?
to explain and understand behavior using scientific methods
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What are the 5 major psychology perspectives?
neuroscience, cognition, behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic
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Neuroscience perspective
approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions
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psychodynamic perspective
approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
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Who is linked to the origin of the psychodynamic view?
Sigmund Freud
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Behavioral Perspective
view that looks at the behavior itself as the problem
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Cognitive perspective
view that suggests that people's thoughts and beliefs are a central component of abnormal behavior
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Humanistic approach
approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior
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Free will
the ability to freely make decisions about one's own behavior and life
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determinism
sees behavior as caused, or determined, by things beyond a person's control
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What are the 5 key issues in psychology?
- Nature v. Nurture
- Conscious v. Unconscious determinants of behavior
- Observable behavior v. internal mental processes
- Free will v. determinism
- Individual differences v. universal principles
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scientific method
approach through which psychologists systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest
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theories
broad explanations and predictions concerning observations of interest
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hypothesis
a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated in a way that allows it to be tested
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operational definition
the translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed
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descriptive research
an approach to research designed to systematically investigate a person, group, or patterns of behavior
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archival research
research in which existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings are examined to test a hypothesis
60
naturalistic observation
research in which an investigator simply observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation
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survey research
Research in which people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes
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case study
an in depth, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people
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variables
behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way
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correlation research
Research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or “correlated”
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experiment
The investigation of the relationship between two (or more) variables by deliberately producing a change in one variable in a situation and observing the effects of that change on other aspects of the situation
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experimental manipulation
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
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treatment
the manipulation implemented by the experimenter
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experimental group
any group participating in an experiment that receives a treatment
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control group
group participating that receives no treatment
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independent variable
the variable being manipulated
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dependent variable
The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation (handling) of the independent variable
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random assignment to condition
A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance and chance alone
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replication
Research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
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informed consent
A document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve
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experimental bias
Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment
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placebo
A false treatment, such as a pill, “drug,” or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient
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behavioral neuroscientists (biopsychologists)
Psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior
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neurons
Nerve cells, the basic elements of the nervous system
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dendrite
A cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons
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axon
The part of the neuron that carries messages destined for other neurons
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terminal buttons
Small bulges at the end of axons that send messages to other neurons
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myelin sheath
A protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around the neuron
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all-or-none law
the rule that neurons are either on or off
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resting state
The state in which there is a negative electrical charge of about −70 millivolts within a neuron
85
action potential
An electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron when it is set off by a “trigger,” changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive
86
mirror neurons
Specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior, but also when a person simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior
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synapse
The space between two neurons where the axon of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages
88
neurotransmitters
Chemicals that communicate messages from one neuron to another neuron across the synapse
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excitatory messages
Chemical messages that make it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon
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inhibitory messages
Chemical messages that prevent or decrease the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire
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reuptake
The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by a terminal button
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central nervous system (CNS)
The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord
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spinal cord
A bundle of neurons that leaves the brain and runs down the length of the back and is the main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body
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reflex
An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus
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sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the central nervous system
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motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that communicate information from the nervous system to muscles and glands
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interneurons
Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons, carrying messages between the two
98
peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system that includes the autonomic and somatic subdivisions; made up of neurons with long axons and dendrites, it branches out from the spinal cord and brain and reaches the extremities of the body
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somatic division
The part of the peripheral nervous system that specializes in the control of voluntary movements and the communication of information to and from the sense organs
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autonomic division
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary movement of the heart, glands, lungs, and other organs
101
sympathetic division
The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to prepare the body for action in stressful situations, engaging all the organism’s resources to respond to a threat
102
parasympathetic division
The part of the autonomic division of the nervous system that acts to calm the body after an emergency or a stressful situation has ended
103
behavioral genetics
the study of the effects of heredity on behavior
104
endocrine system
A chemical communication network that sends messages throughout the body via the bloodstream
105
hormones
Chemicals that circulate through the blood and regulate the functioning or growth of the body
106
pituitary gland
The major component of the endocrine system, or “master gland,” which secretes hormones that control growth and other parts of the endocrine system
107
central core
The “old brain,” which controls basic functions such as eating and sleeping and is common to all vertebrates
108
cerebellum
The part of the brain that controls bodily balance
109
reticular formation
The part of the brain extending from the medulla through the pons and made up of groups of nerve cells that can immediately activate other parts of the brain to produce general bodily arousal
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thalamus
The part of the brain located in the middle of the central core that acts primarily to relay information about the senses
111
hypothalamus
A tiny part of the brain, located below the thalamus, that maintains **homeostasis** and produces and regulates vital behavior, such as eating, drinking, and sexual behavior
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limbic system
The part of the brain that includes the amygdala and hippocampus, and controls eating, aggression, and reproduction
113
cerebral cortex
The “new brain,” responsible for the most sophisticated information processing in the brain; contains four lobes
114
What are the four main sections of the cerebral cortex?
frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe
115
motor area
The part of the cortex that is largely responsible for the body’s voluntary movement
116
sensory area
The site in the brain of the tissue that corresponds to each of the senses, with the degree of sensitivity related to the amount of the tissue allocated to that sense
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association areas
One of the major regions of the cerebral cortex; the site of the higher mental processes, such as thought, language, memory, and speech
118
neuroplasticity
The brain’s ability to change throughout the life span through the addition of new neurons, new interconnections between neurons, and the reorganization of information-processing areas.
119
hemispheres
Symmetrical left and right halves of the brain that control the side of the body opposite to their location
120
lateralization
The dominance of one hemisphere of the brain in specific functions, such as language
121
biofeedback
A procedure in which a person learns to control through conscious thought internal physiological processes such as blood pressure, heart and respiration rate, skin temperature, sweating, and the constriction of particular muscles
122
sensation
The activation of the sense organs by a source of physical energy
123
perception
The sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli by the sense organs and brain
124
stimulus
Physical energy that produces a response in a sense organ
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psychophysics
The study of the relationship between the physical aspects of stimuli and our psychological experience of them
126
absolute threshold
The smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for the stimulus to be detected
127
difference threshold
The smallest level of added or reduced stimulation required to sense that a change in stimulation has occurred
128
weber's law
A basic law of psychophysics stating that a just noticeable difference is in constant proportion to the intensity of an initial stimulus
129
adaptation
An adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli
130
retina
The part of the eye that converts the electromagnetic energy of light to electrical impulses for transmission to the brain
131
rods
Thin, cylindrical receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light
132
cones
Cone-shaped, light-sensitive receptor cells in the retina that are responsible for sharp focus and color perception, particularly in bright light
133
optic nerve
A bundle of ganglion axons that carry visual information to the brain
134
feature detection
The activation of neurons in the cortex by visual stimuli of specific shapes or patterns
135
Trichromatic theory of color vision
The theory that there are three kinds of cones in the retina, each of which responds primarily to a specific range of wavelengths
136
Opponent-process theory of color vision
The theory that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other
137
sound
The movement of air molecules brought about by a source of vibration
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eardrum
The part of the ear that vibrates when sound hits it
139
semicircular canals
Three tubelike structures of the inner ear containing fluid that sloshes through them when the head moves, signaling rotational or angular movement to the brain
140
what are the four skin senses?
touch, pressure, temperature, and pain
141
gate-control theory of pain
The theory that particular nerve receptors lead to specific areas of the brain related to pain
142
gestalt laws of organization
Principles describing how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes
143
top-down processing
Perception that is guided by higher-level knowledge, experience, expectations, and motivations
144
bottom-up processing
Perception that consists of the progression of recognizing and processing information from individual components of a stimuli and moving to the perception of the whole
145
depth perception
The ability to view the world in three dimensions and to perceive distance
146
visual illusions
Physical stimuli that consistently produce errors in perception
147
Imaging that shows brain function
EEG, PET, fMRI, and TMS
148
Imaging that can show brain structure
fMRI and PET
149
sound localization
the process by which we identify the direction from which a sound is coming
150
Four basic stimulus qualities of taste
sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
151
What does A demonstrate?
closure
152
what does B demonstrate?
proximity
153
What does C demonstrate?
similarity
154
what does D demonstrate?
simplicity
