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Intro To Psychology > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

How long do REM cycles usually last?

A

90 minutes

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2
Q

The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves

A

Stage 1 sleep

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3
Q

A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of sleep spindles

A

Stage 2 Sleep

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4
Q

The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation

A

Stage 3 Sleep

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5
Q

Sleep occupying 20 percent of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections (in males); eye movements; and the experience of dreaming

A

REM sleep

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6
Q

What type of sleep may play a role in memory and storage?

A

REM sleep

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7
Q

How many dreams does the average person experience by the age of 70?

A

150,000

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8
Q

Dreams represent unconscious wishes the dreamer wishes to fulfill

A

Unconscious wish fulfillment theory (Freud)

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9
Q

The theory suggesting that dreams permit information tha tis critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep

A

Dreams-for-survival theory

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10
Q

J. Allan Hobson’s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain

A

Activation-synthesis theory

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11
Q

According to Sigmund Freud, the “disguised” meaning of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects

A

Latent content of dreams

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12
Q

According to Sigmund Freud, the apparent story line of dreams

A

Manifest content of dreams

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13
Q

What are the three main explanations of dreaming?

A

Unconscious wish fulfillment theory, dreams for survival theory, activation synthesis theory

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14
Q

difficulty sleeping

A

insomnia

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15
Q

a condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping

A

Sleep Apnea

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16
Q

a mysterious killer of seemingly normal infants who die while sleeping; thought to have possible ties to sleep apnea

A

SIDS

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17
Q

sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal

A

night terrors

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18
Q

When do night terrors usually occur during the sleep cycle

A

stage 3

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19
Q

What age group do night terrors usually affect

A

children within the ages of 3 and 8

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20
Q

uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake

A

narcolepsy

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21
Q

what stage of the sleep cycle do people with narcolepsy fall directly into

A

REM

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22
Q

What stage of sleep does sleepwalking and sleep-talking generally occur in?

A

Stage 3

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23
Q

biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle

A

circadian rhythm

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24
Q

What is used to study sleep?

A

EEG

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25
Q

A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others

A

hypnosis

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26
Q

Do people lose all will of their own during hypnosis?

A

no

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27
Q

Are people capable of lying when under hypnosis?

A

yes

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28
Q

What percentage of the population cannot be hypnotized at all?

A

5%-20%

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29
Q

What percentage o people can be easily hypnotized?

A

15%

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30
Q

What are some common characteristics of people who can be easily hypnotized?

A

-easily absorbed while reading books
- zoning out
- high ability to concentrate

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31
Q

What is a key issue of hypnosis?

A

Whether it represents a different state of consciousness or is similar to normal waking consciousness

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32
Q

A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness

A

meditation

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33
Q

Drugs that influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior

A

psychoactive drugs

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34
Q

How do drugs affect the nervous system?

A

Block/Release of neurotransmitter & Block/Release of receptor of neurotransmitter

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35
Q

Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible

A

Addictive drugs

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36
Q

The body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it

A

physiological drug dependence

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37
Q

people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living

A

psychological drug dependence

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38
Q

Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension

A

Stimulants

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39
Q

How does caffeine affect the body?

A

-increase attentiveness
-decrease reaction time
- nervousness
- insomnia

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40
Q

strong stimulants like Dexedrine and Benzedrine, popularly known as speed; increase concentration and reduce fatigue

A

Amphetamines

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41
Q

What is a long term affect of amphetamines?

A

paranoia

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42
Q

white, crystalline drug that US police now say is the most dangerous street drug; produces strong lingering high

A

methamphetamine

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43
Q

What drug is commonly abused by college students? Hint: initially used for ADHD

A

adderall

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44
Q

this drug contains amphetamine-like stimulant containing chemicals related to cathinone; produce rise in sociability and sex drive but side effects include paranoia and agitation

A

bath salts

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45
Q

This drug blocks dopamine reabsorption and is snorted

A

cocaine

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46
Q

What are three types of stimulants?

A

amphetamines, cocaine, and bath salts

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47
Q

What are three types of depressants?

A

alcohol, barbituates, and roofies (rohypnol)

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48
Q

What are three types of narcotics?

A

heroin, morphine, and opioids

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49
Q

What are three type of hallucinogens?

A

cannabis, MDMA (ecstasy), and LSD (acid)

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50
Q

drugs that slow down the nervous system

A

depressents

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51
Q

What is the most common depressent?

A

alcohol

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52
Q

people with alcohol abuse problems

A

alcoholics

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53
Q

These drugs produce a sense of relaxation and are commonly prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress

A

barbiturates

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54
Q

date-rape drug

A

rohypnol

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55
Q

Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety

A

narcotics

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56
Q

Which two narcotics are derived from the poppy seed pod?

A

morphine and heroin

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57
Q

narcotics derived from natural substances

A

opiates

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58
Q

synthetic narcotics

A

opioids

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59
Q

Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings

A

hallucinogen

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60
Q

What is the most common hallucinogen used today?

A

marijuana

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61
Q

hallucinogens that affect the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain

A

MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly) and LSD

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62
Q

A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience

A

learning

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63
Q

the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus

A

habituation

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64
Q

who developed classical conditioning?

A

Ivan Pavlov

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65
Q

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response

A

classical conditioning

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66
Q

A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest

A

neutral stimulus

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67
Q

A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned

A

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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68
Q

A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food)

A

unconditioned response (UCR)

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69
Q

A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus

A

conditioned stimulus (CS)

70
Q

A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)

A

conditioned response (CR)

71
Q

learned

A

conditioned

72
Q

not learned

A

unconditioned

73
Q

Who did an experiment with Little Albert to see if fear could be conditioned?

A

John B Watson

74
Q

intense, irrational fears

A

phobias

75
Q

A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears

A

extinction

76
Q

The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning

A

spontaneous recovery

77
Q

A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response

A

stimulus generalization

78
Q

The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli

A

stimulus discrimination

79
Q

Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response’s favorable or unfavorable consequences

A

operant conditioning

80
Q

Who is associated with operant conditioning?

A

B F Skinner

81
Q

a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals

A

Skinner box

82
Q

The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated

A

reinforcement

83
Q

Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again

A

reinforcer

84
Q

What kind of stimuli can act as reinforcers?

A

bonuses, toys, and good grades

85
Q

satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s previous experience(ex. food and shelter)

A

primary reinforcer

86
Q

a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer (ex. money)

A

secondary reinforcer

87
Q

A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response

A

positive reinforcer

88
Q

An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future

A

negative reinforcer

89
Q

A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again

A

punishment

90
Q

weakens a response by applying an unpleasant stimulus

A

positive punishment

91
Q

the removal of something pleasant

A

negative punishment

92
Q

What are the possible disadvantages to punishment?

A
  • Can prove ineffective if not delivered shortly after undesirable behavior
  • can lead to the idea that physical aggression is a good way to solve problems
  • can reduce self-esteem of recipients unless the understand the reasons behind the punishment
93
Q

The pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior

A

schedules of reinforcement

94
Q

A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs; better for learning

A

continuous reinforcement schedule

95
Q

Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time; beavior tends to last longer

A

partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule

96
Q

A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made

A

fixed-ratio schedule

97
Q

A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable

A

variable-ratio schedule

98
Q

A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low

A

fixed-interval schedule

99
Q

A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed

A

variable-interval schedule

100
Q

What kind of interval schedule is more likely to produce relative study rates of responding?

A

variable-interval schedule

101
Q

The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

A

shaping

102
Q

A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

A

behavior modification

103
Q

What are the 6 steps in behavior modification?

A
  1. identify goals and target behaviors
  2. design a data recording system and record preliminary data
  3. select behavior change strategy
  4. implement the program
  5. keep careful records after program is implemented
  6. evaluate and alter the ongoing program
104
Q

An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning

A

cognitive learning theory

105
Q

Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it

A

Latent learning

106
Q

a mental representation of spatial locations and directions

A

cognitive map

107
Q

Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model

A

observational learning

108
Q

who examined the principles of observational learning?

A

Albert Bandura

109
Q

neurons that fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior

A

mirror neurons

110
Q

characteristic ways of approaching material, based on their cultural background and unique pattern of abilities

A

learning styles

111
Q

master material best through understanding the big picture

A

relational learning style

112
Q

analyze the various components underlying a phenomenon or situation

A

analytical learning style

113
Q

The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information

A

memory

114
Q

approach that states that there are different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered

A

three-system approach

115
Q

The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant; can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed

A

sensory memory

116
Q

Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds

A

short-term memory

117
Q

Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve

A

long-term memory

118
Q

A meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory (7_+2)

A

chunk

119
Q

The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory; allows us to tranfer the info into long term memory

A

rehearsal

120
Q

information is considered and organized in some fashion

A

elaborative rehearsal

121
Q

Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like

A

declarative memory

122
Q

Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory

A

procedural memory

123
Q

Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts

A

semantic memory

124
Q

Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context

A

episodic memory

125
Q

The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory

A

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

126
Q

a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory

A

retrieval cue

127
Q

Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved

A

recall

128
Q

Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives

A

recognition

129
Q

The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed

A

levels of processing theory

130
Q

Intentional or conscious recollection of information

A

explicit memory

131
Q

Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior

A

implicit memory

132
Q

what type of memory is linked to prejudice

A

implicit

133
Q

Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event

A

flashbulb memories

134
Q

Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events

A

constructive processes

135
Q

Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled; sets of cognitions about people and social experiences

A

schemas

136
Q

who came up with schemas?

A

Bartlett

137
Q

Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives

A

autobiographical memories

138
Q

What are the pros of forgetting?

A
  • helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by trivial store of meaningless data
  • permits us to form general impressions and recollection
  • forgetting means we get to relearn what we lost
139
Q

Who studied forgetfullness?

A

Ebbinghaus

140
Q

Why do we forget?

A

failure to encode the details

141
Q

The loss of information in memory through its nonuse

A

decay

142
Q

the physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned

A

memory traces

143
Q

The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information

A

interference

144
Q

Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory

A

cue-dependent forgetting

145
Q

Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer information

A

proactive interference

146
Q

Interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material

A

retroactive interference

147
Q

Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data

A

thinking

148
Q

Representations in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented

A

mental images

149
Q

Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people

A

concepts

150
Q

what do concepts help us do?

A
  • organize complex phenomena into simpler cognitive categories
  • classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experience
  • influence behavior
151
Q

Typical, highly representative samples of a concept

A

prototypes

152
Q

the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions

A

reasoning

153
Q

a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem

A

algorithm

154
Q

A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors

A

heuristic

155
Q

What are the three steps of problem solving?

A

-Preparation
-production
- judgement

156
Q

both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear

A

well-defined problem

157
Q

not only may the specific nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem may be even less obvious

A

ill-defined problem

158
Q

Problem solving which involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists

A

means-ends analysis

159
Q

The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use

A

functional fixedness

160
Q

Meaningless speechlike sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year

A

babble

161
Q

time in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language

A

critical period

162
Q

The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

A

language

163
Q

Sentences in which only essential words are used, typically including only nouns and verbs

A

telegraphic speech

164
Q

The phenomenon by which children overapply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error

A

overgeneralization

165
Q

The theory suggesting that language acquisition (gaining) follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning

A

learning-theory approach to language development

166
Q

Theory that humans are genetically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways

A

nativist approach (to language development)

167
Q

Who developed the nativist approach?

A

Chomsky

168
Q

Noam Chomsky’s theory that all the world’s languages share a common underlying structure

A

universal grammar

169
Q

A neural system of the brain hypothesized by Noam Chomsky to permit understanding of language

A

language-acquisition device

170
Q

The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language

A

interactionalist approach to language development

171
Q

The hypothesis that language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world

A

linguistic-relativity hypothesis

Intro To Psychology (4 decks)

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