Exam 2 Flashcards
How long do REM cycles usually last?
90 minutes
The state of transition between wakefulness and sleep, characterized by relatively rapid, low-amplitude brain waves
Stage 1 sleep
A sleep deeper than that of stage 1, characterized by a slower, more regular wave pattern, along with momentary interruptions of sleep spindles
Stage 2 Sleep
The deepest stage of sleep, during which we are least responsive to outside stimulation
Stage 3 Sleep
Sleep occupying 20 percent of an adult’s sleeping time, characterized by increased heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rate; erections (in males); eye movements; and the experience of dreaming
REM sleep
What type of sleep may play a role in memory and storage?
REM sleep
How many dreams does the average person experience by the age of 70?
150,000
Dreams represent unconscious wishes the dreamer wishes to fulfill
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory (Freud)
The theory suggesting that dreams permit information tha tis critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep
Dreams-for-survival theory
J. Allan Hobson’s theory that the brain produces random electrical energy during REM (rapid eye movement) sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain
Activation-synthesis theory
According to Sigmund Freud, the “disguised” meaning of dreams, hidden by more obvious subjects
Latent content of dreams
According to Sigmund Freud, the apparent story line of dreams
Manifest content of dreams
What are the three main explanations of dreaming?
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory, dreams for survival theory, activation synthesis theory
difficulty sleeping
insomnia
a condition in which a person has difficulty breathing while sleeping
Sleep Apnea
a mysterious killer of seemingly normal infants who die while sleeping; thought to have possible ties to sleep apnea
SIDS
sudden awakenings from non-REM sleep that are accompanied by extreme fear, panic, and strong physiological arousal
night terrors
When do night terrors usually occur during the sleep cycle
stage 3
What age group do night terrors usually affect
children within the ages of 3 and 8
uncontrollable sleeping that occurs for short periods while a person is awake
narcolepsy
what stage of the sleep cycle do people with narcolepsy fall directly into
REM
What stage of sleep does sleepwalking and sleep-talking generally occur in?
Stage 3
biological processes that occur regularly on approximately a 24-hour cycle
circadian rhythm
What is used to study sleep?
EEG
A trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others
hypnosis
Do people lose all will of their own during hypnosis?
no
Are people capable of lying when under hypnosis?
yes
What percentage of the population cannot be hypnotized at all?
5%-20%
What percentage o people can be easily hypnotized?
15%
What are some common characteristics of people who can be easily hypnotized?
-easily absorbed while reading books
- zoning out
- high ability to concentrate
What is a key issue of hypnosis?
Whether it represents a different state of consciousness or is similar to normal waking consciousness
A learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness
meditation
Drugs that influence a person’s emotions, perceptions, and behavior
psychoactive drugs
How do drugs affect the nervous system?
Block/Release of neurotransmitter & Block/Release of receptor of neurotransmitter
Drugs that produce a biological or psychological dependence in the user so that withdrawal from them leads to a craving for the drug that, in some cases, may be nearly irresistible
Addictive drugs
The body becomes so accustomed to functioning in the presence of a drug that it cannot function without it
physiological drug dependence
people believe that they need the drug to respond to the stresses of daily living
psychological drug dependence
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system, causing a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension
Stimulants
How does caffeine affect the body?
-increase attentiveness
-decrease reaction time
- nervousness
- insomnia
strong stimulants like Dexedrine and Benzedrine, popularly known as speed; increase concentration and reduce fatigue
Amphetamines
What is a long term affect of amphetamines?
paranoia
white, crystalline drug that US police now say is the most dangerous street drug; produces strong lingering high
methamphetamine
What drug is commonly abused by college students? Hint: initially used for ADHD
adderall
this drug contains amphetamine-like stimulant containing chemicals related to cathinone; produce rise in sociability and sex drive but side effects include paranoia and agitation
bath salts
This drug blocks dopamine reabsorption and is snorted
cocaine
What are three types of stimulants?
amphetamines, cocaine, and bath salts
What are three types of depressants?
alcohol, barbituates, and roofies (rohypnol)
What are three types of narcotics?
heroin, morphine, and opioids
What are three type of hallucinogens?
cannabis, MDMA (ecstasy), and LSD (acid)
drugs that slow down the nervous system
depressents
What is the most common depressent?
alcohol
people with alcohol abuse problems
alcoholics
These drugs produce a sense of relaxation and are commonly prescribed by physicians to induce sleep or reduce stress
barbiturates
date-rape drug
rohypnol
Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety
narcotics
Which two narcotics are derived from the poppy seed pod?
morphine and heroin
narcotics derived from natural substances
opiates
synthetic narcotics
opioids
Drugs that are capable of producing alterations in perception, thoughts, and feelings
hallucinogen
What is the most common hallucinogen used today?
marijuana
hallucinogens that affect the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain
MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly) and LSD
A relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
learning
the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
habituation
who developed classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
classical conditioning
A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest
neutral stimulus
A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food)
unconditioned response (UCR)
A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)
conditioned response (CR)
learned
conditioned
not learned
unconditioned
Who did an experiment with Little Albert to see if fear could be conditioned?
John B Watson
intense, irrational fears
phobias
A basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
extinction
The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
spontaneous recovery
A process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
stimulus generalization
The process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from each other that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli
stimulus discrimination
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on the response’s favorable or unfavorable consequences
operant conditioning
Who is associated with operant conditioning?
B F Skinner
a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals
Skinner box
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
reinforcement
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
reinforcer
What kind of stimuli can act as reinforcers?
bonuses, toys, and good grades
satisfies some biological need and works naturally, regardless of a person’s previous experience(ex. food and shelter)
primary reinforcer
a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer (ex. money)
secondary reinforcer
A stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
positive reinforcer
An unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
negative reinforcer
A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
punishment
weakens a response by applying an unpleasant stimulus
positive punishment
the removal of something pleasant
negative punishment
What are the possible disadvantages to punishment?
- Can prove ineffective if not delivered shortly after undesirable behavior
- can lead to the idea that physical aggression is a good way to solve problems
- can reduce self-esteem of recipients unless the understand the reasons behind the punishment
The pattern of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
schedules of reinforcement
A schedule in which behavior is reinforced every time the behavior occurs; better for learning
continuous reinforcement schedule
Reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time; beavior tends to last longer
partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule
A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made
fixed-ratio schedule
A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses, but the reinforcement schedule is unpredictable
variable-ratio schedule
A schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low
fixed-interval schedule
A schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed
variable-interval schedule
What kind of interval schedule is more likely to produce relative study rates of responding?
variable-interval schedule
The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
shaping
A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
behavior modification
What are the 6 steps in behavior modification?
- identify goals and target behaviors
- design a data recording system and record preliminary data
- select behavior change strategy
- implement the program
- keep careful records after program is implemented
- evaluate and alter the ongoing program
An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
cognitive learning theory
Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
Latent learning
a mental representation of spatial locations and directions
cognitive map
Learning by observing the behavior of another person, or model
observational learning
who examined the principles of observational learning?
Albert Bandura
neurons that fire when we observe another person carrying out a behavior
mirror neurons
characteristic ways of approaching material, based on their cultural background and unique pattern of abilities
learning styles
master material best through understanding the big picture
relational learning style
analyze the various components underlying a phenomenon or situation
analytical learning style
The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
memory
approach that states that there are different memory storage systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered
three-system approach
The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant; can store an almost exact replica of each stimulus to which it is exposed
sensory memory
Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
short-term memory
Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve
long-term memory
A meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory (7_+2)
chunk
The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory; allows us to tranfer the info into long term memory
rehearsal
information is considered and organized in some fashion
elaborative rehearsal
Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like
declarative memory
Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory or implicit memory
procedural memory
Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
semantic memory
Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context
episodic memory
The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
a stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is in long-term memory
retrieval cue
Memory task in which specific information must be retrieved
recall
Memory task in which individuals are presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it in the past or to identify it from a list of alternatives
recognition
The theory of memory that emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed
levels of processing theory
Intentional or conscious recollection of information
explicit memory
Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior
implicit memory
what type of memory is linked to prejudice
implicit
Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event
flashbulb memories
Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events
constructive processes
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled; sets of cognitions about people and social experiences
schemas
who came up with schemas?
Bartlett
Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives
autobiographical memories
What are the pros of forgetting?
- helps us avoid being burdened and distracted by trivial store of meaningless data
- permits us to form general impressions and recollection
- forgetting means we get to relearn what we lost
Who studied forgetfullness?
Ebbinghaus
Why do we forget?
failure to encode the details
The loss of information in memory through its nonuse
decay
the physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned
memory traces
The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall of other information
interference
Forgetting that occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
cue-dependent forgetting
Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer information
proactive interference
Interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material
retroactive interference
Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information, including words, visual images, sounds, or other data
thinking
Representations in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented
mental images
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people
concepts
what do concepts help us do?
- organize complex phenomena into simpler cognitive categories
- classify newly encountered objects on the basis of our past experience
- influence behavior
Typical, highly representative samples of a concept
prototypes
the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions
reasoning
a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem
algorithm
A thinking strategy that may lead us to a solution to a problem or decision, but—unlike algorithms—may sometimes lead to errors
heuristic
What are the three steps of problem solving?
-Preparation
-production
- judgement
both the nature of the problem itself and the information needed to solve it are available and clear
well-defined problem
not only may the specific nature of the problem be unclear, the information required to solve the problem may be even less obvious
ill-defined problem
Problem solving which involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists
means-ends analysis
The tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use
functional fixedness
Meaningless speechlike sounds made by children from around the age of 3 months through 1 year
babble
time in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues and most easily acquires language
critical period
The communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
language
Sentences in which only essential words are used, typically including only nouns and verbs
telegraphic speech
The phenomenon by which children overapply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error
overgeneralization
The theory suggesting that language acquisition (gaining) follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning
learning-theory approach to language development
Theory that humans are genetically prewired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways
nativist approach (to language development)
Who developed the nativist approach?
Chomsky
Noam Chomsky’s theory that all the world’s languages share a common underlying structure
universal grammar
A neural system of the brain hypothesized by Noam Chomsky to permit understanding of language
language-acquisition device
The view that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
interactionalist approach to language development
The hypothesis that language shapes and helps determine the way people perceive and understand the world
linguistic-relativity hypothesis
