Exam 3 Flashcards
The factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms
motivation
Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned
instincts
The view that people and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival
instinct approaches to motivation
how is sexual behavior an instinct?
There is an innate biological instinct to reproduce
Theories suggesting that a lack of a basic biological requirement such as water produces a drive to obtain that requirement (in this case, the thirst drive)
drive-reduction approaches to motivation
Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need
drive
what are some examples of basic drives?
- Hunger
- Thirst
- Sleep
- Sex
what is a primary drive?
fulfills a basic need
what is as secondary drive?
prior experiences and learning bring about needs
The body’s tendency to maintain a steady internal state
homeostasis
What functions operate via homeostasis?
needs for food, water, stable body temp, and sleep
The belief that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity, increasing or reducing them as necessary
arousal approaches to motivation
Theories suggesting that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals, or incentives
incentive approaches to motivation
Theories suggesting that motivation is a product of people’s thoughts and expectations—their cognitions
cognitive approaches to motivation
causes us to participate in an activity for our own enjoyment rather an for any concrete, tangible reward that it will bring us
Intrinsic Motivation
causes us to do something for money, grade, or some other concrete, tangible reward
extrinsic motivation
Who devised a model of motivation?
Maslow
places motivational needs in a hierarchy and suggests that before more sophisticated, higher order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied
Maslow’s Model
These kinds of needs include the need to obtain and give affection and to be a contributing member of some group or society
love and belongingness needs
The recognition that others value your competence and worth, and they admire you for your qualities
esteem
What are the five sets of needs in order?
- Physiological
- safety
- love and belongingness
- esteem
- self actualization
A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in their own unique way
self- actualization
Who created the self-determination theory?
ryan and deci
What are the three basics of the self determination theory?
- competence
- autonomy
- relatedness
the need to produce desirable outcomes
competence
the perception that we have control over our own lives
autonomy
the need to be involved with close, warm relationships with other
relatedness
how many people in the united states are overweight?
200 million
how much of the US population is obese?
more than 1/3
Body weight that is more than 20 percent above the average weight for a person of a particular height
obesity
how many people around the globe are overweight or obese?
a billion people
what kind of BMI is considered obese?
> 30
The particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain
weight set point
The rate at which food is converted to energy and expended by the body
metabolism
this says that the presence of too many fat cells from earlier weight gain may result in the set point’s becoming stuck at a higher level than is desirable
weight-set-point hypothesis
A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance—which can become skeleton-like—are unusual
anorexia nervosa
A disorder in which a person binges on large quantities of food, followed by efforts to purge the food through vomiting or other means
bulimia
involved in signaling when we should stop eating
orbitofrontal cortex
Male sex hormones secreted by the testes
androgens
A female sex hormone secreted by the ovaries
progesterone
what are the two female sex hormones?
estrogen and progesterone
The point at which an egg is released from the ovaries
ovulation
The view that premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females
double standard
A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence
need for achievement
A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people
need for affiliation
A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others, and to be seen as a powerful individual
need for power
Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior
emotions
basic emotions
happiness, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust
Who were the first researchers to explore the nature of emotions?
James and Lange
gut reaction to emotion
visceral experience
The belief that emotional experience is a reaction to bodily events occurring as a result of an external situation (“I feel sad because I am crying”)
James-Lange theory of emotion
The belief that both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
The belief that emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues
Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate expression
facial-affect program
The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also help determine how people experience and label emotions
facial-feedback hypothesis
positive emotions
love and joy
negative emotions
anger, sadness, fear, disgust
The branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change that occur throughout life
developmental psychology
influence of parents, siblings, family, schooling, nutrition
environmental causes of behavior
causes based on an individuals genetic makeup that influences growth and development throughout life
hereditary causes
The issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior
nature-nurture issue
the unfolding of biologically predetermined patterns of behavior
maturation
Twins who are exactly the same genetically; allows us to see the importance of hereditary
identical twins
A research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
cross-sectional research
a group of people who grow up at similar times, in similar places, and in similar conditions
cohort
A research method that investigates behavior as participants age
longitudinal research
what is the difference between longitudinal and cross-sectional research?
Longitudinal assess change in behavior over time, whereas cross-sectional assess differences among groups of people
A research method that combines cross-sectional and longitudinal research by considering a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time
sequential research
Rod-shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information
chromosomes
how many pairs of chromosomes are there?
23
The parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted
genes
how many different genes do humans have?
20,000 - 25,000
The new cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm
zygote
first two weeks after conception
germinal period
this developmental period lasts from week 2 to week 8
embryonic period
A developed zygote that has a primitive heart, a brain, and other organs
embryo
developmental period from week 8 until birth
fetal period
A developing individual, from eight weeks after conception until birth
fetus
The point at which a fetus can survive if born prematurely
age of viability
around what time in a pregnancy is the age of viability?
22 weeks
the time when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli
sensitive or critical periods
a child born with this inherited disease cannot produce an enzyme required for normal development. If untreated, this disease can cause profound intellectual disabilities
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
this disease causes abnormally shaped red blood cells and is more common in the African American population
sickle-cell anemia
this disease is characterized by the inability to break down fat and is more commonly found in Jews of Eastern European Ancestry
Tay-Sachs disease
this is characterized by an extra chromosome at development and results in severe mental disabilities
down syndrome
Environmental agents such as a drug, chemical, virus, or other factor that produce a birth defect
teratogens
what are the major prenatal environmental influences on the fetus?
mothers
- nutrition
-illness
-drug use
-alcohol use
-nicotine use
What are the effects of fetal alcohol syndrome disorder (FASD)?
-below-average intelligence
-growth delays
-facial deformities
newborn child
neonate
a white, greasy covering for protection before birth
vernix
a soft fuzz over the entire newborns body for protection
lanugo
An automatic, involuntary response to an incoming stimulus
reflex
this reflex causes a neonate to turn their head toward things that touch their cheek
rooting reflex
prompts infants to suck at things that touch their lips
sucking reflex
reflex to clear the throat
gag reflex
a series of movements in which an infant flings out the arms, fans the fingers, and arches the back in response to a sudden noise
startle reflex
a baby’s toes fan out when the outer edge of the sole of the foot is stroked
Babinski reflex
what are the basic reflexes?
-rooting
-sucking
- gag
- startle
- Babinski
The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
attachment
Who studied attachment?
Harry Harlow
a sequence of events involving a child and typically his or her mother
Ainsworth strange situation
In what percentage of families with children does the father stay home to care for preschoolers?
13%
a chemical imbalance in hypothalamus or pituitary gland; differences in how the brain processes info about food
biological causes of eating disorder
society values slenderness and obesity is undesirable; overly demanding parents or other family problems
social causes of eating disorders
How much does an infant develop in one year?
they triple their birth weight and their height increases by 50%
nature of attachment is similar to mother’s but engage in more physical activities, less verbal
father’s role
how man children worldwide are malnourished?
1/4 of children under 5
what percentage of children with working mothers spend their days in child care?
30%
Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children
authoritarian parents
Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although warm, require little of them
permissive parents
Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
authoritative parents
Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached
uninvolved parents
what are the four types of child rearing styles?
- authoritarian
- permissive
- authoritative
- uninvolved
The basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life
temperment
change in our interactions and understanding of each other and our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society; passing through each stage necessitates resolution of a crisis or conflict
Eriksons theory of psychosocial development
Development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society
psychological development
According to Erik Erikson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1½ years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust
trust-versus-mistrust stage
The period which, according to Erik Erikson, toddlers (ages 1½ to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
autonomy versus shame and doubt stage
According to Erik Erikson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action
initiative versus guilt stage
According to Erik Erikson, the last stage of childhood, during which children ages 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable
industry versus inferiority stagee
The process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience
cognitive development
suggested that children around the world proceed through a series of four stages in a fixed order; quantity of info and quality of knowledge
Piaget
What are the four stages of Piaget’s theory of devlopment?
- sensorimotor
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operational
According to Jean Piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols
sensorimotor stage
The awareness that objects—and people—continue to exist even if they are out of sight
object permanence
According to Jean Piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development
preoperational stage
A way of thinking in which a child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective
egocentric thought
The knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects
principle of conservation
According to Jean Piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism
concrete operational stage
According to Jean Piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
formal operational stage
The way in which people take in, use, and store information
information processing
An awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes
metacognition
the culture in which we are raised significantly affects the nature of our cognitive development
Vygotsky’s view of cognitive development
According to Lev Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own
zone of proximal development (ZPD)
support for learning and problem solving that encourages independence and growth
scaffolding
similarities with biological children in same family show importance of environment
adopted children
The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood
adolescence
The period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys
puberty
At this level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, the concrete interests of the individual are considered in terms of rewards and punishments
preconventional morality
at this level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, people approach moral problems as members of society. They are interested in pleasing others by acting as good members of society.
conventional morality
In this level of Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, people accept that there are certain broad principles of morality that should govern our actions. These principles are more critical than the particular laws in society.
Postconventional morality
What is the difference between kohlberg and gilligan approach?
Kohlberg focuses on stages and gilligan focuses on gender differences
According to Erik Erikson, a time in adolescence of major testing to determine one’s unique qualities
identity-versus-role-confusion stage
The distinguishing character of the individual: who each of us is, what our roles are, and what we are capable of
identity
According to Erik Erikson, a period during early adulthood that focuses on developing close relationships
intimacy-versus-isolation stage
According to Erik Erikson, a period in middle adulthood during which we take stock of our contributions to family and society
generativity-versus-stagnation stage
According to Erik Erikson, a period from late adulthood until death during which we review life’s accomplishments and failures
ego-integrity-versus-despair stage
is the characterization of a story adolescence fact or fiction?
its a myth
What is the third-leading cause of death for adolescents in the United States?
suicide
How often does a teenager in the united states commit suide?
every 90 minutes
in the US, what group is more likely to commit suide?
males are 5x more likely to succeed in committing suicide; however, females attempt suicide more often
What are the possible causes of suicide?
-depression
-social anxiety
-family background
-adjustment difficulties
-parental conflict
-alcohol and drug use
The period beginning in the late teenage years and extending into the mid-20s
emerging adulthood
The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile; usually occurring in late 40s or 50s
menopause
How can symptoms of menopause be treated?
Hormone therapy: replaces estrogen and progesterone
-problems: increased risk of breast cancer, blood clots, and coronary heart disease
a time of questioning their lives, they are influenced by the idea that life will end and they question past accomplishments; generally occurs in the early 40s
midlife transition
dissatisfaction with life
midlife crisis
how does the average age of marriage compare with the average age 50 years ago?
the average age now is higher
What percentage of first marriages end in divorce?
50%
what percentage of married women with school-age children are employed outside the home?
75%
what percentage of married women with children under the age of 6 are employed outside the home?
65%
the study of older adults and aging
gerontology
Theories that suggest that our DNA genetic code includes a built-in time limit into the production of human cells and that they are no longer able to divide after a certain time
genetic preprograming theories of aging
Theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently
wear-and-tear theories of aging
information processing skills such as memory, calculations, and analogy solving; shows decline in late adulthood
fluid intelligence
accumulation of information, skills, and strategies learned through experience; remain steady
crystallized intelligence
A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
Alzheimer’s disease
A theory that suggests that aging produces a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels
disengagement theory of aging
A theory that suggests that the elderly who are more successful while aging are those who maintain the interests and activities they had during middle age
activity theory of aging
The process by which people examine and evaluate their lives
life review
What are the 5 stages of dealing with impending death?
-denial
-anger
-bargaining
-depression
-acceptance
resist the idea they are dying
denial
angry at people in good health around them, at medical professionals, at God
anger
trying to postpone death
bargaining
bargaining will not work; “preparatory grief”
for their own death
depression
made peace with themselves; usually unemotional and uncommunicative
acceptance
Who is credited with opening the discussion of death with 5 stages?
Kubler-Ross
The pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality in a given person
personality
Approaches that assume that personality is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness and over which they have no control
psychodynamic approaches to personality
Who was the pioneer of the psychodynamic approach?
Freud
Sigmund Freud’s theory that unconscious forces act as determinants of personality
psychoanalytic theory
A part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware
unconscious
contains material not threatening and is easily brought to mind
preconscious
The instinctual and unorganized part of personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses
ID
reduce tension and maximize satisfaction
pleasure principle
The rational, logical part of personality that attempts to balance the desires of the id and the realities of the objective, outside world
ego
instinctual energy is restrained to keep individual safe and to help integrate the person into society
reality principle
The part of personality that harshly judges the morality of our behavior
superego
makes you feel guilty if you do something morally wrong
conscience
Developmental periods that children pass through during which they encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual urges
psychosexual stages
Conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they first occur
fixations
According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from birth to age 12 to 18 months, in which an infant’s center of pleasure is the mouth
oral stage
According to Sigmund Freud, a stage from age 12 to 18 months to 3 years of age, in which a child’s pleasure is centered on the anus
anal stage
According to Sigmund Freud, a period beginning around age 3 during which a child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals
phallic stage
A child’s sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent
oedipal conflict
The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible, imitating that person’s behavior and adopting (taking on) similar beliefs and values
identification
According to Sigmund Freud, the period between the phallic stage and puberty during which children’s sexual concerns are temporarily put aside
latency period
According to Sigmund Freud, the period from puberty until death, marked by mature sexual behavior
genital stage
In Freudian theory, unconscious strategies that people use to reduce anxiety by concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves and others
defense mechanisms
The primary defense mechanism in which unacceptable or unpleasant id impulses are pushed back into the unconscious
repression
people behave as if they were at an earlier stage of development
regression
the expression of an unwanted feeling or thought is redirected from a more threatening powerful person to a weaker one
displacement
people refuse to accept or acknowledge an anxiety-producing piece of information
denial
people attribute unwanted impulses and feeling to someone else
projection
people divert unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings, or behaviors
sublimation
unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in consciousness
reaction formation
Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of its major points
non-Freudian psychoanalysts
According to Carl Jung, a common set of ideas, feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our ancestors, the whole human race, and even nonhuman ancestors from the distant past
collective unconscious
According to Carl Jung, universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience
achetypes
championed womens issues; believed personality develops in the context of social relationships and depends on the relationship between parents and children
Karen Horney
Coined “inferiority conplex”
Alfred Adler
feelings of inferiority in adults that they developed as children. when they were small and limited in their knowledge about the world
inferiority complex
Consistent, habitual personality characteristics and behaviors that are displayed across different situations
traits
A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality
trait theory
Theories that emphasize the influence of a person’s cognitions—thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values—as well as observation of others’ behavior, in determining personality
social cognitive approaches to personality
Who coined the 3 dimensions of personality
Eysenck
degree of sociability
extraversion
emotional stability
neuroticism
degree to which reality is distorted
psychoticism
3 dimensions of personality?
- extraversion
- neuroticism
- psychoticism
what are the “big five” traits or factors?
openness to experience
conscientiousness
extraversion
agreeableness
neuroticism
says that personality is a collection of learned behavior patterns
Skinner
the important components of personality are inherited
biological and evolutionary approaches
the basic, innate disposition that emerges early in life
temperment
belief in one’s personal capabilities
self-efficacy
The component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative self-evaluations
self-esteem
Theories that emphasize people’s innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of functioning
humanistic approaches to personality
A state of self-fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential, each in their own unique way
self-actualization
An attitude of acceptance and respect on the part of an observer, no matter what a person says or does
unconditional positive regard
Standard measures devised to assess behavior objectively; used by psychologists to help people make decisions about their lives and understand more about themselves
psychological tests
refers to the measurement consistency of a test
reliability
when test measure what they are designed to measure
validity
standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score with the scores of others who have taken the same test
norms
A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about a sample of their behavior
self-report measures
A widely used self-report test that identifies people with psychological difficulties and is employed to predict some everyday behaviors
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 RF (MMPI-2 RF)
A technique used to validate questions in personality tests by studying the responses of people with known diagnoses
test standardization
Tests in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it in order to infer information about their personality
projective personality tests
A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical visual stimuli to people who then are asked what the figures represent to them
Rorschach test
A test consisting of a series of pictures about which a person is asked to write a story
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Direct measures of an individual’s behavior used to describe personality characteristics
behavioral assessment
The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
intelligence
The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence
g or g-factor
Intelligence that reflects the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, solve problems, and find patterns.
fluid intelligence
The accumulation of information, knowledge, and skills that people have learned through experience and education, reflecting the facts that we have learned
crystallized intelligence
Howard Gardner’s theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence
theory of multiple intelligences
what are the 8 distinct spheres of intelligence?
- musical
-bodily kinesthetic
-logical-mathematical
-linguistic
-spatial
-interpersonal
-intrapersonal
-naturalist
measures intelligence by the way people store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks
information-processing approaches
Who coined “practical intelligence”?
Sternberg
According to Robert Sternberg, intelligence related to overall success in living
practical intelligence
The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions
emotional intelligence
Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence
intelligence tests
who first developed intelligence tests?
Binet
the average age of individuals who achieve a particularl level of performance
mental age
actual, physical age
chronological age
A score that takes into account an individual’s mental and chronological ages
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
tests based on age
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
divided into a verbal scale and performance scale
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
A disability characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills
intellectual disability
IQ scores from 55 to 69
mild intellectual disability
IQ scores from 40-54
moderate disability
IQ scores from 25-39
severe disability
IQ scores < 25
profound disability
what are 2 biological causes of intellectual disabilities?
fetal alcohol syndrome
down syndrome
The most common cause of intellectual disability in newborns, occurring when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy
fetal alcohol syndrome
results from presence of extra chromosomes
down syndrome
Intellectual disability in which no apparent biological or genetic problems exist, but there is a history of intellectual disability among family members.
familial intellectual disability
The 2 to 4 percent of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130
intellectually gifted
A test that does not discriminate against the members of any minority group
culture-fair IQ test
A measure of the degree to which a characteristic is related to genetic, inherited factors
heritability
