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Exam Lessons Learned Flashcards

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1
Q

What is normality?

A

Normality is the number of equivalents of reactive species per liter of solution

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2
Q

Should you chose the extreme answer choice?

A

Probably not!

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3
Q

What does SOCl2 + an aldehyde do?

A

Makes an acyl halide

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4
Q

How do you find the resultant force when two are acting in opposing directions?

A

Vector sum

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5
Q

What is the torque at a pivot point?

A

0

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6
Q

What direction is anterior?

A

Front

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7
Q

What is the pH of the equivalence point of a diprotic weak acid?

A

(1/2)(pKa1+pKa2)

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8
Q

What equation represents Newton’s 3rd Law?

A

Fa on b = -Fb on a

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9
Q

What are common steroids?

A

Aldosterone, estrogen, cortisol, testosterone

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10
Q

What kinds of reactions do oxidoreductases catalyze?

A

Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions where electrons are transferred

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11
Q

What does an oxalyl group look like?

A

2 carboxyls right next to each other

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12
Q

What molecule in the electron transport chain has the most positive standard reduction potential?

A

O2 is the final electron acceptor because it has the most positive standard reduction potential

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13
Q

Do reactions coupled with ATP hydrolysis have a positive or negative ∆G?

A

Negative

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14
Q

What is the Keq if the ∆G of the forward reaction is negative?

A

Keq > 1

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15
Q

What is the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection?

A

The angle of incidence always equals the angle of reflection

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16
Q

What is the Keq of the reverse reaction?

A

1/Keq

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17
Q

Is -OCH3 an electron donating or withdrawing group?

A

OCH3 is an electron donating group

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18
Q

What configuration is most stable for a monosubstituted benzene ring?

A

Para or ortho

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19
Q

What substituents are carbocations stabilized by?

A

Carbocations are stabilized by substituents with many electrons, like fluorine

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20
Q

What conditions are favorable in reactions with -∆S?

A

Low temperatures (need to make T∆S minimal)

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21
Q

What does pushing an object parallel to gravity do?

A

Increases the normal force by the force of pushing

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22
Q

How many hydrogen bonds does C-G form?

A

3

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23
Q

Does the solubility of water vapor in air increase or decrease with altitude?

A

Decreases because temperature decreases

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24
Q

What is the equivalence point?

A

The point where the reaction comes to an end in a titration

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25
Q

What is a negative control?

A

A group not exposed to the experimental treatment or to any other treatment that is expected to have an effect

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26
Q

What is homotopic regulation?

A

When a molecule serves as a substrate for its target enzyme, regulates activity

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27
Q

Is a high Ka a strong or weak acid?

A

A higher Ka is a strong acid

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28
Q

What is a suicide inhibitor?

A

A molecule that binds irreversibly to the active site of an enzyme and forms covalent bonds with it

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29
Q

When are transition metal ions colored?

A

When they have open d orbitals to move to when they absorb photons

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30
Q

What is the acceleration of an object when the force applied is less that the force of static friction?

A

Zero

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31
Q

What is the equation for mechanical advantage?

A

MA = force(output)/force(input), W(output) = W(input)

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32
Q

What are the properties of a positron?

A

Mass of an electron but positively charged

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33
Q

What direction does current flow in a circuit?

A

From the positive terminal (long stick) to the negative terminal (short stick) of the battery

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34
Q

What does hydrolysis of carbon dioxide produce?

A

Bicarbonate, which leads to the bicarbonate buffer system

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35
Q

What happens to the pH of blood when you hyperventilate?

A

It increases

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36
Q

What is an equivalent unit to Pa

A

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

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37
Q

What happens to pressure when velocity increases in a pipe?

A

Pressure decreases when velocity increases

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38
Q

What is pressure converted to when a closed pipe is opened

A

Energy

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39
Q

What is the equation for flow rate?

A

Flow rate = cross sectional area x velocity

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40
Q

What variable is needed to compare to results?

A

A control is needed for a baseline measurement to compare results to

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41
Q

If the results are not different then the control what can be said about them?

A

They are not significant

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42
Q

What is typically the purpose of a culture medium?

A

To promote cell growth

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43
Q

What three cell types are granulocytes?

A

Eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils

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44
Q

What is PKA stimulated by?

A

cAMP

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45
Q

What technique sterilizes laboratory materials?

A

Autoclave

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46
Q

Is meiosis cyclical?

A

No

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47
Q

What is a double crossover event?

A

A double-crossover event is one in which chromosomal arms of homologous chromosomes cross over in two different places along the arm

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48
Q

What are the basic amino acids?

A

K, R, H

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49
Q

What types of muscles does troponin act on?

A

Skeletal and cardiac muscles (required for muscle contraction)

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50
Q

What are the types of fibers in skeletal muscles?

A

Red fibers (slow-twitch) and white fibers (fast-twitch)

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51
Q

What do isomerases do?

A

Isomerases catalyze the conversion of one isomer into another

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52
Q

What does the liver store?

A

Excess fat (can cause fatty liver disease if too much)

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53
Q

What is Chargaff’s rule?

A

In double-stranded DNA %A=%T. %C=%G

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54
Q

What compounds are good to label to detect the metabolic activity of cancer?

A

Glucose because cancer cells have a high rate of glycolysis (PET scans usually label glucose or oxygen)

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55
Q

What process produces lactate in cells?

A

Fermentation

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56
Q

What is LDL

A

Fat that carries cholesterol to cells throughout the body, bad cholesterol

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57
Q

What is the mitotic spindle composed of?

A

Microtubules

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58
Q

At moderate/high/physiological temperatures does cholesterol increase rigidity or fluidity of the cell membrane

A

Cholesterol increases rigidity of the cell membrane by attracting adjacent phospholipid tails

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59
Q

What are homologous structures?

A

Homologous structures are those that have similar evolutionary history/the same source but now have different functions (arm and flipper)

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60
Q

What does the uvula do?

A

The uvula prevents backflow of food or liquid into the nasal cavity

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61
Q

When is pressure the greatest in the lungs?

A

When volume is smallest (inhale)

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62
Q

Which autosomal trisomies are viable?

A

Trisomy 21, 18, 13

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63
Q

What is the p arm of a chromosome

A

The short end (centromere is not centered)

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64
Q

During which phase do spindle fibers attach to the chromosome?

A

Metaphase

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65
Q

What neurotransmitters are catecholamines?

A

Dopamine and norepinephrine

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66
Q

What kinds of molecules are produced and secreted by neurons?

A

Neurotransmitters…

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67
Q

What is parsimony?

A

The idea that the phylogenetic tree that requires the fewest branches/mutations is most likely

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68
Q

Are cells after meiosis one haploid or diploid?

A

Haploid

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69
Q

What direction is a blot for protein level?

A

Western

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70
Q

What is the y-intercept in a Lineweaver-Burk plot?

A

1/Vmax

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71
Q

How can amino acids cross membranes?

A

Through protein channels

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72
Q

Does insulin promote storage or use of glucose

A

Storage

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73
Q

Are acetals or alcohols more hydrophobic soluble?

A

Alcohols

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74
Q

Does single stranded DNA have RNA primers?

A

No because it is not being replicated (it is being used for replication)

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75
Q

What is a mediating variable?

A

A mediating variable is one that explains the relationship between two other variables

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76
Q

What is a moderating variable?

A

A moderating variable moderates the intensity of the relationship between the dependent and independent variable

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77
Q

What is ethnocentrism

A

Ethnocentrism is a world view in which one views other cultures through the lens of one’s own culture

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78
Q

What reinforcement schedule is most resistant to behavior extinction?

A

Variable-ratio

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79
Q

What is construct validity

A

Construct validity refers to the validness of the definitions of terms in the study (the study is actually tested what it thinks it is)

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80
Q

What is self-efficacy?

A

Self-efficacy is the belief that someone has the ability to act in ways that will help them achieve their goals

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81
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

The variable researchers control and change

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82
Q

What is the primary neurotransmitter of the mesolimbic system?

A

Dopamine

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83
Q

Is prejudice or discrimination a behavioral difference?

A

Discrimination is a behavior difference, prejudice is an attitude difference

84
Q

Is approach or avoidance the appealing option in a decision?

A

Approach = appealing features, avoidance = appealing features

85
Q

What is scarcity?

A

Scarcity is basically how people handle satisfying themselves regarding unlimited wants and needs with resources that are limited

86
Q

What is the difference between reliability and validity in a study?

A

“reliability” refers to the consistency of a measurement, meaning whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions, while “validity” refers to the accuracy of a measurement, indicating whether the results truly represent what they are intended to measure

87
Q

What is the functionalist view?

A

Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts that carry out a specific role to together maintain social equilibrium

88
Q

What is social desirability bias?

A

Social norms that put pressure to act a certain way, pertains to answering questionnaire questions

89
Q

Can lack of touch be corrected by later pairing with mother according to the Harlow study?

A

No, they still show abnormal behavior after lack of touch

90
Q

What is anomie?

A

Anomie is when society feels fragmented and lacks cohesiveness/normalness (associated with poverty)

91
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

Availability heuristic is when people make judgements by over-relying on information that is immediately available to them

92
Q

What is internal validity?

A

Internal validity refers to the degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn in the study (accounting for confounding variables, statistic powers, etc)

93
Q

What is the nucleus accumbens responsible for?

A

The nucleus accumbens is the center for reward sensitivity and motivation

94
Q

Is individual or institutional discrimination a conscious choice?

A

Individual (institutional can be intentional or unintentional )

95
Q

What conflict in Erikson’s stages occur in people 65 and older?

A

Integrity vs despair from reflecting on life

96
Q

When is the reward presented in operant conditioning?

A

The reward is presented after the desired behavior is performed

97
Q

Which of the components of Freud’s psyche model (id, superego, ego) have an unconscious element

A

All!

98
Q

Which brain area integrates sensory information inputs including proprioception, thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors

A

The parietal lobe integrates sensory information inputs including proprioception, thermoreceptors and mechanoreceptors

99
Q

What is reciprocal determinism?

A

Reciprocal determinism (Bandura) is when a behavior influences and is influenced by personal factors (such as beliefs) and the environment

100
Q

What is deindividuation?

A

Deindividuation is when people are in a group situation where they don’t feel accountable for their actions

101
Q

What is social cognitive theory?

A

Social cognitive theory says that people learn by watching others (so if someone is rewarded for a behavior the person watching might do it too)

102
Q

Do bureaucracies focus on individual people and relationships?

A

No bureaucracies focus on the hierarchical structure, are impersonal, and have written rules

103
Q

What is the equation for free energy change?

A

∆G = ∆H -T∆S

104
Q

What electronic transition series of hydrogen is visible light produced from?

A

Balmer series (from higher level to 2)

105
Q

Electrons from which molecular orbitals require the most energy to eject?

A

sp because they are the highest energy as a result of the s character (electrons are closest to the nucleus)

106
Q

What kind of particle has the smallest mass?

A

Gamma particle (essentially massless)

107
Q

How does priority change across a group for chirality? What is more important the atoms priority or the bond character?

A

Priority increases down a group, rules about atom priority supercede rules about bonds

108
Q

What is the sign of ∆G for a galvanic cell?

A

Negative

109
Q

Name H3PO4, H3PO3, and H3PO2

A

phosphoric acid, phosphorous acid, hypophosphorous acid

110
Q

What does a large Ksp mean?

A

The compound is very soluble

111
Q

What in the body is elastic?

A

Nothing a bit of energy will always be lost

112
Q

What is the energy stored in a spring

A

PE/KE = 1/2kx2 (F = kx)

113
Q

What is 1/12? 1/8?

A

0.083, 0.125

114
Q

In an experiment when you stimulate a compound what are you testing?

A

You are usually testing if you can get the compound to work or if its broken

115
Q

During hyperventilation does CO2 and O2 increase or decrease

A

CO2 decreases (causing acidic blood) and O2 increases

116
Q

What subunits are eukaryotic proteins synthesized on?

A

80S

117
Q

What does aldosterone do to K+ and Na+ levels?

A

Aldosterone decreases blood K+ levels (increases K+ secretion) and increases Na+ levels (Na+ reabsorption increases)

118
Q

What is glycosylation?

A

Glycosylation is a post-translational modification that attaches carbohydrates the protein to mark it for folding and packaging

119
Q

How can the Michaelis-Menten equation be approximated for reactions with low substrate concentrations and large Kms

A

V = k[S]

120
Q

What does surfactant do?

A

Surfactant decreases surface tension so that the alveoli remain inflated when the lungs are compressed

121
Q

What is substrate-level phosphorylation?

A

When phosphorylation occurs generated in glycolysis (2ATP) and the citric acid cycle (1 GTP), before oxidative phosphorylation

122
Q

What is broken down in beta oxidation?

A

Beta oxidation breaks down a fatty acyl-CoA molecule into acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2

123
Q

What does SDS-PAGE sort by and what molecules travel farther?

A

SDS-PAGE sorts by molecular weight and molecules (DNA/RNA/proteins move towards a positively charged pole

124
Q

Which nucleotides are purines?

A

A and G

125
Q

What solvents are best for Sn2 reactions?

A

Polar aprotic solvents are favored by Sn2 reactions

126
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Passive immunity is the transfer of active humoral immunity in the form of ready made antibodies from one person to another

127
Q

Do heavier or lighter fragments travel farther in electrophoresis?

A

Lighter fragments travel farther in electrophoresis

128
Q

How are the light and heavy chains of an immunoglobulin connected?

A

The chains of an immunoglobulin are connected by pairs of polypeptides forming disulfide bonds (creates a molecule shaped like a Y)

129
Q

What types of molecules are immunoglobulins

A

Immunoglobulins/antibodies are glycoproteins

130
Q

What is stimulus generalization?

A

Stimulus generalization is when a response to a stimulus also occurs in response to similar stimuli

131
Q

What are universal emotions

A

Emotions expressed the same way across cultures (fear, anger, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise)

132
Q

What is a clinical patient sample in terms of a study of a disorder?

A

A patient sample diagnosed with that disorder

133
Q

Can relationships between other variables in the study strengthen your study?

A

Yes if they align with what you are saying

133
Q

What is attributional bias?

A

Attributional bias refers to systematically making mistakes by trying to attribute people’s behaviors to a reason

134
Q

What is self-serving bias?

A

Self-serving bias is the tendency to attribute good outcomes with internal factors and bad outcomes with external factors

135
Q

What kind of neurons are efferent? Afferent?

A

Motor neurons are efferent, sensory neurons are afferent (interneurons are neither)

136
Q

What are examples of impression management?

A

Flattery, boasting, self-promotion, conformity, integration

137
Q

What is a ratio level of measurement?

A

A ratio level of measurement is when there is a range of number responses equally spaced with 0 being a possibility

138
Q

What do people with Wernicke’s aphasia have trouble with?

A

People with Wernicke’s aphasia have difficulty connecting meaning to language so they can’t express or understand meaning in language

139
Q

What do the temporal lobes mainly process?

A

Emotion and sensory information

140
Q

What is proactive interference

A

Proactive interference is when old material interferes with learning new material

141
Q

Can studies testing something on a patient group say anything about the controls?

A

Yes sometimes info about the controls/healthy patients is revealed

142
Q

What is advancement in meritocracies based on?

A

In meritocracies people progress based on ability and talent

143
Q

What is the context effect?

A

The context effect is the influence of the environment on a person’s perception of a stimulus (for example better recall when learning and testing in the same place)

144
Q

What does a correlation coefficient say?

A

Correlation coefficient describes the strength of the relationship on a scale from -1 to 1 (1 being linear)

145
Q

Where is sperm produced?

A

Sperm is produced by the sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules

146
Q

What is the internal consistency of a study?

A

Internal consistency refers to how well the parts of the test correlate with each other (not usually relevant to findings)

147
Q

Are implicit attitudes conscious or unconscious?

A

Unconscious, explicit attitudes are conscious

148
Q

What is the equation for Doppler shift?

A

Vb = FdVs/2F0cos(theta)

149
Q

Where does gluconeogenesis occur?

A

Gluconeogenesis occurs in the mitochondria and cytosol

150
Q

What is gluconeogenesis?

A

Creating glucose from non-carbon sources (amino acids, lactate, glycerol)

151
Q

What role does the amino group take in hydrogen bonding?

A

An amine acts as a hydrogen bond donor

152
Q

What is the equation for the efficiency of an engine?

A

n (efficiency) = W/Qh

153
Q

What does adiabatic mean?

A

No heat exchange

154
Q

What is the normal force when the centripetal force is minimal?

A

0

155
Q

What is attenuation?

A

the reduction of the amplitude of a signal

156
Q

What are the strong acids?

A

perchloric (HClO4), hydroiodic (HI), hydrobromic (HBr), hydrochloric (HCl), sulfuric (H2SO4), nitric (HNO3), and chloric (HClO3)

157
Q

What is chemotaxis?

A

Chemotaxis is when damaged or infected cells release chemicals to attract macrophages

158
Q

What does cadherin do?

A

Cadherin is a protein that facilitates cell to cell adhesion

159
Q

What does a vaccine require to work?

A

Functioning immune system that can recognize the invader

160
Q

How do antibiotics enter bacterial?

A

Antibiotics enter through porins in the outer member which aid diffusion of hydrophilic antibodies

161
Q

What happens when there is constant calcium in myocytes

A

continuous contractions (tetany)

162
Q

How do steroid hormones get to target tissues around the body?

A

Steroid hormones bind to transport proteins because they cannot dissolve in the blood plasma directly

163
Q

What are muscles made of?

A

Myofibrils

164
Q

Can enzymes be stereospecific?

A

Yes some enzymes can only react with a particular stereoisomer and will only catalyze a reaction that produces a specific isomer

165
Q

What is the lytic phase of a phage

A

When a virus infects and kills/lyses immediately

166
Q

What does the 5’ untranslated region do?

A

The 5’UTR regulates the translation of a transcript by recruiting the ribosome

167
Q

What is the equation for replication number in PCR?

A

of DNA strands x 2^#of cycles

168
Q

What’s in a mature mRNA?

A

5’ cap (one base pair), 5’UTR, coding region, 3’UTR, polyA tail

169
Q

When does a voluntary muscle contract involuntary?

A

When a reflex arc is operating

170
Q

What is symbolic interaction theory?

A

Symbolic interaction theory says that people act based on meanings of cultural symbols that are derived from social interaction

171
Q

When is an independent samples t-test used?

A

An independent samples t-test is used when comparing the means of two-unrelated groups

172
Q

What does relative poverty measure?

A

Relative poverty is when a family isn’t meeting needs that are beyond basic necessities of life, it is less concrete than absolute poverty but more consistent across time

173
Q

What sleep stage do sleepwalking and bedwetting occur in?

A

Stage 3 (Delta), deep

174
Q

How long is a typical adult sleep cycle?

A

90 minutes

175
Q

What are stimulus motives

A

Stimulus motives are behaviors that are innate (unlearned) but not necessary for survival

176
Q

What did Stanley Milgram study?

A

Obedience (participants will follow anything if instructed by a superior, even things that go against their conscience)

177
Q

What is informative pressure?

A

Informative pressure is when you conform because you think the group is better informed than you

178
Q

How is deuterium different from hydrogen?

A

Deuterium has a proton and a neutron, hydrogen only contains a proton

179
Q

Does an enzyme stabilize or destabilize a transition state?

A

An enzyme stabilized the transition state to lower its energy

180
Q

What is the equation for index of refraction?

A

n = c/v (should always be more than 1)

181
Q

What is the energy of electromagnetic radiation directly proportional to?

A

Energy is directly proportional to the number of photons and intensity

182
Q

What kind of bonding enhances the rigidity of molecules?

A

Intermolecular disulfide bonding (more than intramolecular)

183
Q

What is the linkage type in glycogen?

A

alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds

184
Q

What molecule should you date when looking at the activity of a phosphatase?

A

Phosphate 32

185
Q

What is the thin lens equation?

A

1/o + 1/i = 1/f

186
Q

Do you multiply standard reduction and oxidation potentials by the coefficients of the balanced reaction?

A

No just add them

187
Q

What are nicotinamide nucleotides?

A

NAD+

188
Q

What’s special about the medullary portion of the collecting duct?

A

The medullary portion of the collecting duct is the last portion of the tubules where reabsorption can occur so it contains the most concentrated glomerular filtrate

189
Q

What is the composition of lipid rafts?

A

Lipid rafts are rich in cholesterol and sphingolipids

190
Q

Do enzymes modify substrate structure or shape?

A

Enzymes alter substrate shape (and pH) but do not alter substrate primary structure

191
Q

What do specific enzymes assays measure?

A

Enzyme assays measure the activity of the reaction catalyzed by the enzyme

192
Q

What do fibroblasts do?

A

Fibroblasts support and connect tissues and organs

193
Q

What is a major metabolic function of glucocorticoids?

A

Glucocorticoid stimulates gluconeogenesis

194
Q

What is the function of the endomembrane system?

A

The endomembrane system is in charge of modifying proteins that will be secreted

195
Q

How does diabetes affect breakdown of macromolecules?

A

Proteins and lipids are used more as a source of glucose

196
Q

When does the concrete operational stage start and what is the goal?

A

7 years old, conservation, reversibility, problem solving

197
Q

What do punishments do to response?

A

Punishments decrease the frequency of response

198
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?

A

Heart beat, blood pressure, digestion, body temperature, pupils, etc

199
Q

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

A

The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence

200
Q

Can you always do an experimental study?

A

No, sometimes you can’t manipulate the variables or it’s unethical to assign random groups

201
Q

What is actor-observer bias?

A

Observers will attribute their own bad behavior to situational factors (not feeling well), whereas observers will attribute actors’ behavior to dispositional factors (social awkwardness)

202
Q

Are there specific stress responses depending on the stressor?

A

No (Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome) an organism’s stress response always follows a similar course

203
Q

How can multiple tests be used to assess validity?

A

If the tests have the relationship they are supposed to then it can support validity

204
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

Sensory memory is the short-term storage of sensory information, such as how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels

205
Q

What are in-groups typically based on

A

Shared identity in terms of one thing like race, gender, religion

206
Q

What are ethnographic methods?

A

Ethnographic methods tend to be systematic observations of social settings or culture

MCAT (4 decks)

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