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Exam III Flashcards

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1
Q

Vitamin D

A
  • Steroid hormone
  • Gets mobilized into an active form caled calcitriol
  • Hypercalcemid by increasing Ca absorb in small intestine
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2
Q

Adenylate cyclase

A
  • Enzyme in G protein system
  • Turned on by G protein
  • Takes AMP and makes cAMP
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3
Q

PTH and Bone

A
  • Increase osteocytic osteolysis
  • Increase osteoclast activity (slowly)
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4
Q

Addison’s Disease

A
  • Decrease in cortisol
  • Decrease HGO
  • Decrease glycogen store
  • Decrease adipose
  • Decrease in muscle glycogen (weak)
  • Decrease sympathetic response
  • Skin darkening
  • Decrease aldosterone (high K low Na)
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5
Q

Calcitriol

A
  • Active form of vitamin D hormone
  • Acts on intestine to increase Ca absorb
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6
Q

Alpha 1 Adrogergic Receptors + Cortisol

A
  • Cortisol helps maintain

Sympathetic release of NorEpi –> Vasoconstriction

  • Cortisol maintains receptor numbers so this response can occur
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7
Q

GLUT 4 and insulin

A
  • Sugar transporter across the membrane
  • Insulin takes GLUT4 from cytoplasm and places in membrane to increase transport
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8
Q

Zona Glomerulosa

A
  • Makes aldosterone
  • Regulated by renin angiotensin system
  • ACTH help maintain Z.Glo
  • Regulates kidney Na retention and K excretion
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9
Q

Feedback in Follicular Phase

A
  • Follicles secrete estrogen
  • Esterogen does positive feedback to HPA
  • This positive feedback is responsible for the surge of LH at time of ovulation
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10
Q

Median Eminence

A
  • Capillary bed at base of hypothalamus
  • Neurosecretory neurones release hormones here
  • Pick up hormones from hypothalamus and forms portal Vessel
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11
Q

Sarcomere purpose

A
  • Generate Tension - Sarcomere = Striation
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12
Q

Nuclear Hormone Receptors

A

For steroid hormones

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13
Q

Pancreas Exocrine

A
  • Ducts - Digestive enzymes and bicarb
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14
Q

Isometric Experiment

A
  • Anchor one end of skeletal muscle and connect other end to a force transducer
  • Length constant
  • Add $ and measure tension
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15
Q

Skin darkening in Addison’s

A
  • Decrease cortisol… less negative feedback in HPA
  • Increase CRH
  • Increase ACTH
  • ACTH mimics hormone MSH (skin dark)
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16
Q

Prostaglandins

A
  • Free fatty acids - Chains of carbon atoms with various subgroups that might have regulatory function
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17
Q

Three layers of adrenal cortex

A

Zona Glomerulosa

Zona Fasciculata

Zona Reicularis

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18
Q

Pars Intermedia

A
  • Tissue that differentiates during development to make MSH
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19
Q

Serum Ca and Calcitonin

A
  • Ca too high, Calcitonin released
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20
Q

G-Actin

A
  • Globular proteins arranged in a double helix to form a filamentus actin
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21
Q

Ca Hormones

A

PTH

Calcitonin

Vitamin D

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22
Q

Oral Contracepties

A
  • Small amount of estrogen and some progesterone
  • Provides levels similar to luteal phase or early pregnancy
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23
Q

Slow Twitch Fiber

A
  • Smaller diameter - Darker because of myoglobin - Fatigue resistant
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24
Q

Active Insulin

A
  • Alpha and beta chains
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25
Q

GLUT 2

A
  • Liver, pancreativ B cell, serosal surfaces of gut and kidney
  • Low affinity for glucose
  • Can also take up fructose
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26
Q

Starvation among plenty

A

Type I diabetes - High blood glucose but no insulin to get GLUT 4 to bring it into cells

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27
Q

Db/Db + Ob/Ob

A

obob loses weight

dbdb stays the same

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28
Q

Growth Hormone - Hyperglycemic

A
  • Hyperglycemic
  • Store of blood glucose in liver as glycogen… put into blood
  • GH acts on liver to mobilize glyocgen and put into the blood
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29
Q

Cortisol and Kidney

A
  • Increase renal blood flow
  • Increase glomecular filtration
  • Helps excrete H2O load
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30
Q

Muscle Contract

A
  • Every myofibril and sarcomere is activated and shortens
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31
Q

Cortisol Paradox and Insulin

A
  • Cortisol alone gives a true lipolytic response
  • Modern western society: release cortisol but also get fed…. cortisol with insulin
  • Some lipolytic behavior, but also have insulin
  • Abdominal fat is particularly sensitive to insulin so even with low levels of insulin can get extra abdominal fat
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32
Q

Girls mature first because

A
  • Hypothalamic axis matures first
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33
Q

T4 Actions

A
  • Regulate metabolic rate
  • Increase oxygen consumption
  • Regulate body temperature
  • Helps with normal growth and development
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34
Q

Actin Structural Proteins

A
  • Nebulin - Titin
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35
Q

Anabolic Steroids

A
  • Testosterone knockoffs
  • Formulated to increase muscle stregnth

Men who take it:

  • Decrease GNRH, LH, FSH –> shring testis

Women who take it:

  • Experience liver and reproductive issues
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36
Q

Exophthalmos

A
  • Hypothyroid
  • Looks like eyes popping out of head
  • Fluid and protein accumulation behind the eyes
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37
Q

Testosterone to Estrogen

A
  • Acted upon by aramotase
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38
Q

Cretinism

A
  • Lack of thyroid hormone when developing
  • Physical dwarf
  • Mentally compromised
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39
Q

Hormone Quantities

A

ng/mL 10^-9 g/mL

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40
Q

Insulin Receptor

A
  • Has its own enzyme activity (kinase)
  • Insulin binds, causes change
  • Receptor undergoes autophosphorylation
  • Starts a huge phosphorylation cascade
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41
Q

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

A
  • No ER in muscles - Stores Ca 2+
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42
Q

Gonadotropins

A

FSH and LH

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43
Q

Myosin Head

A
  • Interacts with actins
  • Forms bonds and rotates towards the center of the sarcomere
  • Grab actins, pull them together… shorten sarcomere during contraction
  • Contains Mg-ATP complex
  • Contains ATPase Enzyme
  • Head in couplets
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44
Q

DHP

A
  • Dihydropyridine
  • Signaled by action potential in T-Tubule
  • Interacts with RyR protein in sarco. reticulum
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45
Q

Gigantism

A
  • Over secretion of GH
  • Inc. cell division in pit to make GH
  • Pit grows but encased in bone… pushes on hypothalamus which pushes optic chiasm
  • Vision problems
  • Other issues…. adrenal, reproductive, high blood sugar
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46
Q

Decrease Iodine in Diet

A
  • Decrease T3 and T4
  • Increase TRH
  • Increase TSH –> hyperplasia and hypertropy
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47
Q

Metabolizing FFAs

A
  • Type I diabetes
  • Increase ketone bodies in liver …. highly acidic (blown off as acetone)
  • Ketones can lead to ketoacidosis
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48
Q

Glycosuria

A
  • Kidney cannot handle excess glucose
  • Glucose in urine… takes water with it
  • People feel dehydrated and drink more
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49
Q

Testosterone to DHT

A
  • 5-alpha-reductase reduces it to DHT
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50
Q

EOF Smooth Muscle

A
  • 300x better than skeletal muscle
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51
Q

SEC

A
  • Series eleastic compnenet - Tendons at the end
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52
Q

A Band

A
  • Actin and myosin overlap - Each myosin surrounded by 6 actins
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53
Q

Glycogen Depletion

A
  • Muscles run out of glycogen
  • Need glycogen to fuel oxidative resp.
  • People train to increase glycogen storage in muscle… run and then carb load!
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54
Q

Vitamin D in The Kidneys

A
  • 1-alpha-hydroxylase (PTH positive feedback) act on Vitamin D3
  • Released from kidneys as calcitriol
  • Acts on intestines to increase Ca absorb
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55
Q

GHRH

A

Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone

  • Increases GH
  • Act on cells in pituitary to act on GH release
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56
Q

Male Target for LH

A
  • Leydig cells
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57
Q

D Cells

A
  • Islets of Langerhans - Make somatostatin
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58
Q

GH and growth

A
  • Protein anabolic - Bone growth
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59
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A
  • Inner adrenal gland
  • Makes epinephrine
  • Controlled by sympathetic nervous system
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60
Q

Vitamin D Synthesis in Body

A

IN LIVER

  • Cholesterol → Vitamin D3 Precursor

Through blood to skin

  • Absorb UVB light → Pre Vitamin D3

Return to LIVER

  • Convert to Vitamin D3

Goes into blood to kidneys

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61
Q

Release of sperm

A
  • Travel from epididymis through the ductus deferens
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62
Q

AA –> Glucose in Liver

A
  • Need to deaminate
  • Left with carbon atoms
  • Turn carbons into glucose
  • AA used move often is alanine
  • If you see deaminating enzymes in the blood = liver damage
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63
Q

Endocrine regulation of Ca

A
  • Ca is most highly regulated ion in the body
  • 9-11 mg % in the blood
  • Regulate via fast turnover
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64
Q

Treatments for Type II Diabetes

A
  • Glucophage
  • Oral insulin
  • TZDs
  • Fliptin DPP-4
  • GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
  • SGLT-2 Inhibitors
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65
Q

Type II Diabetes

A
  • 95% of diabetics… adult onset
  • Insulin resistance
  • Obesity is a huge risk factor
  • Have insulin but tissue does not responds to it
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66
Q

Stored form of thyroid hormone in blood

A

T4

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67
Q

Calcitonin

A
  • From C cells in thyroid
  • Calci tone down
  • Peptide
  • Hypocalcemic
  • More important in juveniles
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68
Q

What happens in type I diabetes?

A
  • High blood glucose
  • Cannot turn on GLUT 4 to get glucose into cells
  • Starvation amidst plenty
  • Glucose spills into urine
  • Cells metabolize free fatty acids
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69
Q

Bill Daughaday

A
  • Tissue + radioactive S35
  • Add GH… expect epiphyseal disc to grow and incorp S
  • Nada… Repeat with same conditions + a piece of live - Incorporated!
  • Liver is the difference… “Growth Mediator”
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70
Q

Suckling

A
  • Milk letdown - Milk synthesis Oxytocin and Prolactin
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71
Q

Two Major Communication Systems in the Body

A
  • Nervous - Endocrine
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72
Q

MSH

A
  • Melanocyte stimulating hormone
  • From pars intermedia
  • No function in humans
  • Lower vertebrates… change color of skin
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73
Q

Male Birth Control

A
  • Treatment with progesterone and testosteron
  • Pro: inhibits HPA
  • Test: balances test
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74
Q

Type I Muscle

A
  • Slow oxidative
  • Mostly posture
  • Resistant to fatigue
  • High oxidative capacity (lots of mitochondria)
  • Moderate SR activity
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75
Q

Functions of Testosterone

A
  • Sperm development
  • Maintainance and development of male reproductive tract
  • Secondary sexual characteristics
  • Central Nervous System
  • Metabolic Hormone
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76
Q

Islet of Langerhans Cell Types

A

Alpha: glucagon

Beta: insulin

D: somatostatin

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77
Q

Muscle Type Transform

A

Cannot go 1 –>2 but can go from a and b and vice versa

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78
Q

A Band

A
  • Anisotropic - More than one type of protein
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79
Q

Puberty and Bones

A
  • Estrogen and Test stimulate bone growth –> spurt!
  • At end, reach terminal height
  • Epiphyseal disc disappears and becomes solid bones
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80
Q

Adipose tissue

A
  • Responds to many hormones
  • Secretes hormones
  • talks to everyone!
  • First hormone discovered from adipose tissue = leptin
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81
Q

Source of estrogen in postmenopausal women

A
  • DHEA from adipose tissue
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82
Q

Decrease Calcium Release from SR

A
  • When working hard, inorganic phosphate sneaks back into the SR via chloride channels,
  • Phosphate binds up calcium and keeps it from being released
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83
Q

Rickets

A
  • Vitamin D deficiency
  • Either not enough in diet OR enough in diet but cannot be absorbed (not enough UVB)
  • In juveniles leads to permanent bone deformation
  • Adult verision is called osteomalacia
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84
Q

Causes of Fatigue

A
  1. Lactic Acid Buildup 2. Glycogen Depletion 3. Decrease in Ca release from SR
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85
Q

Ant Pit –> Thyroid

A

TSH stimulates thyroid

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86
Q

Rigor Mortis

A
  • No ATP - Muscles are stuck - Cannot separate A and M
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87
Q

Treating castrated animal with inhibin

A
  • Decrease FSH
  • take extract from testicular lymph or rete testis
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88
Q

Protein / Peptide Hormones

A
  • Most - Insulin - Growth Hormon - Prolactin - Generally water soluble
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89
Q

How do you get cAMP levels back down?

A
  • Phosphodiesterase
  • cAMP –> AMP
  • Form of regulation is to regulate amount of PDE
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90
Q

ACTH

A
  • Ant. Pit. - Adrenal hormones - Peptide
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91
Q

VMax dist. vs. load

A
  • Vmax is a function of type of ATPase
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92
Q

Denervation Experiments

A
  • Take muscle fiber
  • Innervate from axon causes muscle contraction and also info for where to put ACh receptors
  • Remove axon, ACh channels appear on surface of cell at points where there are no axons attached
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93
Q

Adrenal medulla + lungs

A
  • Act on beta receptors… cause smooth muscle relaxation
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94
Q

Covalent Regulation

A
  • Myosin kinase phosphorylates serines on myosin so it can bind to actin and form crossbridge
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95
Q

Actin Structure

A
  • Formed from G-Actin in a double helix
  • G actins form filamentus actin
  • Troponin every 7 and tyopomyosin (regulatory proteins)
  • Nebulin runs through the middle -

Titin helps stabilize Sarcomere

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96
Q

Adrenal Gland

A
  • Sits on top of kidneys - Outer = adrenal cortex - Inner = adrenal medulla
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97
Q

Actin

A
  • Thin filaments
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98
Q

Role of progesterone in male birth control

A
  • Inhibits the HPA
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99
Q

Tyrosine Derivative Hormones

A
  • Epinephrine
  • Thyroxine
  • Both are water soluble
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100
Q

Peroxidase

A

Enzyme that hook up iodines and thryoglobulin

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101
Q

Epididymis

A
  • Where sperm is stored
  • Final maturation process takes place here
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102
Q

Type I diabetes

A
  • No insulin
  • Juvenile
  • Autoimmune
  • antibodies to beta cells in pancreas
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103
Q

Hyperthyroid

A
  • Too much thyroid hormone - Increase metabolic rate - Feel warm - Anxious, nervous
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104
Q

PDE

A
  • Phosphodiesterase
  • Degrades cAMP –> AMP
  • Form of regulation is to regulate amount of PDE
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105
Q

Ca Pump

A
  • Uses ATP
  • Brings Ca into the SR and out of the cytoplasm
  • Decrease [Ca] in cytoplasm
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106
Q

Glucagon and Liver

A
  • Increase glycogenolysis
  • Increase gluconeogenesis
  • Increase protein catabolism
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107
Q

Hyperglycemic hormones

A

GH

T4

T3

Cortisol

Epinephrine

Glucagon

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108
Q

Two uses of ATP in muscle

A
  1. Hydrolyze and use energy in phosphate bond to rotate head
  2. Use fresh ATP sterically to to separate actin from myosin
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109
Q

Thyroid Hormone Synthesis

A
  • Take iodine out of blood and bring into cell
  • Na symporter moves I into cell
  • Pendrin transporter moves I into the colloid where peroxidases put thyroglobulin
  • Tyrosines attach
  • Couple Iodine to tyrosines
  • Now have thyroglobulin and iodines
  • Draw thyroglobulin into the cell and use enzyme to cleave T3 and T2 and put in blood
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110
Q

Neurosecretory Neurons

A
  • Long axons - Terminate in post. pituitary - Neurohemal… post pit
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111
Q

Luteal Phase

A
  • Signaled by LH surge
  • Estrogen and Progesterone
  • Progesterone provides NEGATIVE feedback on HPA… keeps FSH and LH low
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112
Q

Epipen

A
  • Makes bronchioles dilate
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113
Q

Insulin resistance location

A
  • Can develop at any point along the phosphorylation cascade
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114
Q

H Zone

A
  • Myosin alone with no actin - Heavy
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115
Q

Sarcomere length and muscle velocity

A
  • Small sarcomeres lined up have to work less hard - Long sarcomeres lined up work harder
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116
Q

What does smooth muscle do?

A
  • Sphincters - GI tract - Vaso constriction/ dilation
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117
Q

Where progesterone acts

A
  • Hypothalamus
  • Acts indirectly on the neurons that make GnRH
  • GnRH neurons connected to the rest of the brain by other neurons
  • Progesterone acts on those
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118
Q

GLUT 3

A
  • Brain neurons and tissue
  • High affinity for glucose
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119
Q

Regulatory Ion of Smooth Muscle

A

Calcium 2+

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120
Q

Biological Clock

A
  • Regulated by hypothalamus - Secretion of cortisol is expression - Part of circadian rhythm
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121
Q

Posterior Pituitary Origin

A
  • Outgrowth of hypothalamus
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122
Q

PTH and Kidneys

A
  • Increase Ca reabsorption
  • Decrease Ca in urine
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123
Q

GLP 1

A
  • Glucagon like peptide - Incretin
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124
Q

Cortisol and time of day

A
  • Biological clock - Fluctuate over 24 hours - High 4am to 8am… prepped metabolically for the day
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125
Q

Osteoblast

A
  • Builds bone… lays down new bone
  • On the outside of the osteon… goes through maturation and works its way inward
  • Matures into osteocyte
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126
Q

Vasopressin

A
  • Post. Pit - Acts on blood vesses (esp. arteries) - Causes constriction which helps to increase blood pressure
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127
Q

How testis make testosterone

A
  • Leydig cells
  • Testosterone diffuses out of leydig cells into Semineferous Tubules to help with maturation of sperm
  • Diffuses into blood too
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128
Q

Z- Line

A
  • Proteins that differentiate the end of the sarcomere
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129
Q

Sertoli Cell

A
  • Make inhibin
  • Interact with spermatogonia
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130
Q

Taking GH…

A
  • Cannot take orally - Inject in blood - Because protein
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131
Q

Euthyroid

A
  • Normal thyroid hormone - important for…. Metabolic Rate Oxygen Consumption Body Temp Effects on the CNS
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132
Q

Myofibril

A
  • Long thread of protein - 1-2 microns in diameter - Runs end to end - Made up of sarcomeres
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133
Q

Type IIa Muscle

A
  • Fast Oxidative
  • More red
  • Fast ATPase
  • More capillaries
  • More ox capacity
  • High SR activity
  • In runners
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134
Q

Master Gland

A
  • Old name for anterior pituitary
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135
Q

Infundibulum

A
  • Connects pituitary and hypothalamus
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136
Q

GLUT 5

A
  • Fructose transporters in small intestine
  • Medium affinity for glucose
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137
Q

Dwarfism

A
  • Unde secretion of GH - Can correct now with biotech
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138
Q

Sarcomere Contraction

A
  • A band stays the same
  • I band gets shorter
  • H band gets shorter
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139
Q

Blood sugar regulation hormones

A
  • Insulin
  • Glucagon
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140
Q

Sarcolemma

A
  • Muscle fiber membrane
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141
Q

CaM

A
  • Calmodulin
  • Can bind 4 Ca
  • Removes caldesmon and calponin regulatory proteins
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142
Q

MHC Gene

A
  • Type I diabetes - Major histocompatibility complex
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143
Q

Two main hormones of Posterior Pit.

A
  • Oxytocin - Vasopressin
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144
Q

Glucose Intolerance

A
  • Type II diabetes
  • Do not handle glucose well
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145
Q

What causes insulin secretion?

A
  • Increase blood glucose (after you eat)
  • Increase AA
  • Increase in Vagal activity
  • Incretins
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146
Q

Prolactin

A
  • Ant. Pit
  • Hypothalamus signals release
  • Acts on mammary tissue to stimulate milk synthesis
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147
Q

Cortisol and immune effects

A
  • Decrease allergic response
  • Decrease ability to form antibodies
  • Decrease histamine (from MAST cells) – anti inflammatory
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148
Q

Three major hormones with Ca regulation

A

PTH

Calcitonin

Vitamin D

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149
Q

How peptide hormones get into cells

A
  • Cannot cross membrane
  • Binds receptor
  • Receptor does signal transduction
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150
Q

Ketoacidosis

A
  • Acidic blood pH - too high –> coma - Will cause death if untreated
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151
Q

Adrenal Medulla and Heart

A
    • Chrono and ino
  • Increase cardiac output
  • Increase coronary blood flow
  • Act on beta adrenergic receptors
  • Increase BP
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152
Q

Hypothalmus to Ant. Pit

A
  • TRH stimulates ant pit
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153
Q

GH and Protein Anabolic

A
  • Increase protein synthesis
  • As you grow, muscles and organs get bigger because laying down protein
  • Need energy to promote growth
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154
Q

TRH

A
  • Released by hypothalamus
  • Stimulates production of TSH in anterior pituigary
  • Negative feedback from T3 and T4
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155
Q

Four Major Classes of Receptors

A
  • Nuclear Hormone Receptors (for steroids)
  • Ligand-Gated Ion Channels
  • G-Protein Coupled Receptors
  • Enzyme linked receptors
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156
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A
  • Extension of sympathetic nervous system
  • Release epinephrine
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157
Q

T-Tubules

A
  • Connective tubule system in muscle fiber
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158
Q

Bone Growth

A
  • From epiphyseal plate - Cartilage - Then ossified
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159
Q

Oxytocin + Uterus

A
  • Birth
  • Oxytocin speeds up strength of uterine contraction
  • Receptors in greater intensity near top of uterus, less at bottom (proper movement DOWN)
160
Q

LH

A
  • Ant. Pit. - Luteinizing hormone - Peptide
161
Q

Metformin (Glucophage)

A
  • Type II Diabetes Treamtn
  • Degrease HGO
  • Increase insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues
162
Q

Glucagon and Adipole Tissue

A
  • Lipolytic… promote lipolysis
163
Q

Osteon

A
  • Turns over bone - Every 11 months
164
Q

Thryoid to Blood

A
  • T3 and T4
  • Negative feedback to stop TRH
165
Q

Signal for muscle to contract

A
  • Increase in Ca in the cytoplasm …. above 10^-7 Molar
166
Q

Aldosterone

A
  • Z. Glo

- mineralcorticoid

  • Regulates Na and K
  • Acts on kidney
  • causes Na retention
  • causes K excretion
167
Q

Treatment for Type I diabetes

A
  • Administer insulin
168
Q

Growth Hormone

A
  • Somatotropin 2 Actions: Metabolic, Growth
169
Q

Alpha Cells

A
  • Islets of Langerhans
  • Make hormone glucagon
170
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • Macrophages from the immune system
  • Invade bone and result in serious bone resorption
171
Q

Regulatory Proteins in Smooth Muscle (Actin)

A
  • Caldesmon
  • Calponin
172
Q

Hyperglycemic

A

Increase blood glucose

173
Q

Testosterone Inhibits

A

Hypothalamus (GNRH)

Anterior Pituitary (FSH and LH)

174
Q

No tetanus in heart… why?

A
  • Cannot bring a second electrical stimulus - Good!
175
Q

Creatine phosphate

A
  • Take a phosphate and donate it to ADP to help regenerate ATP in muscle
176
Q

Glucose tolerance test

A
  • Come in fasted
  • Monitor blood gluocse over time
  • Drink sugary drink
177
Q

Thyroid Colloid

A
  • Inside - Stored thyroid hormone
178
Q

Cortisol Actions

A
  • Metabolic hormone
  • Immune effects
  • Cardiovascular system
  • Bone
  • Kidney
179
Q

GLUT 1

A
  • Brain vaculature, RBC, all tissues
  • High affinity for glucose
180
Q

I-Band

A
  • Isotropic… just one type of protein
181
Q

Cortisol as a metabolic hormone

A
  • Hyperglycemic
  • Increase lipolysis
  • Decrease glucose utilization
  • Decrease insulin sensitivity

- gluconeogenic

182
Q

Resistin

A

Generates insulin resistance

183
Q

Mechanism of Smooth Muscle Contraction

A
  1. Release NT around varicosity… diffuse into cell
  2. Ca into the cell and binds to CaM
  3. CaM removes caldesmon and calponin from actin
  4. Myosin kinase phosphorylates serines on myosin
  5. Phosphorylated myosin binds to actin and forms crossbridge
  6. Phosphatase enter and remove phosphate off myosin so A and M can detach… system reset
184
Q

Glycogen

A
  • Stored glucose - Break it down into glucose - Need glucose for anaerobic component
185
Q

Adult Rickets

A

Osteomalacia

  • Weak bones
  • Malformations
186
Q

Increase # Mito in Cells

A
  • Especially endurance trainging - Also increases metabolic rate
187
Q

External Development of Male Genitalia

A
  • From DHT
188
Q

Sertoli Cells

A
  • Make inhibin
  • Involved in sperm maturation
  • keep track of number of sperm being made
  • Communicate sperm number to pituitary via inhibin
189
Q

Intracellular Receptor

A
  • Receptor inside the cell
  • Steroid hormones
  • Act on nucleus

Change gene transcription

190
Q

Zona Fasciculata and Zona Reticularis

A
  • Make a glucocortiocid (mainly cortisol) - Also cortisone and corticosterone
191
Q

ADH and Vasopressin Work Together

A
  • Dehydration = lower blood volume… decrease blood pressure
  • Secrete ADH to conserve water… increase BP
  • Vasopressin also increases BP
192
Q

Polyurea

A
  • Increase urine flow
193
Q

Neurohemal

A
  • Release hormone to blood - Posterior pituitary
194
Q

Active form of Vidamin D Hormone

A
  • Calcitriol
  • From reaction of vitamin D3 and 1-alpha- hydroxylase in kidneys
195
Q

Maximum tension in a WHOLE muscle depends on

A
  1. Recruitment of motor units 2. Size of motor units
196
Q

PTH and Intestine

A
  • Helps Vitamin D action with Ca absorption
197
Q

Actin and Myosin in Smooth Muscle

A
  • Set up like mesh inside cell
  • Have protein anchors in cell membrane and cytoplasm
  • Sarcomeres attached
198
Q

Steroid Hormone Receptors

A

Ligand activated site specific DNA binding proteins

  • in cytoplasm
  • Hormone enters cell via membrane diffusion and brings the compex to the nucleus
  • Regulates gene transcription (turns on and off genes)
199
Q

Leptin in humans

A
  • Amount of leptin in blood is proportional to fat tissue
  • As body fat increases, amount of leptin increases
  • If leptin levels too low, can stop reproductive cycle in women
  • Too high get leptin resistance
200
Q

Bones and Ca

A
  • Calcium storage
201
Q

Sarcomere at Resting Length

A
  • Optimized a/m overlap - Optimized # crossbridges
202
Q

Serum Ca and PTH

A
  • Decrease Ca, Increase PTH
203
Q

Titin

A
  • Structural protein in actin - Provides elasticity - Stabilize sarcomere Z to Z
204
Q

DHEA

A
  • Dehydropiandosterone
  • Male like hormone
  • From Zona Reticularis
  • Can be metabolized to testosterone
  • Test –> est in adipose tissue
  • In postmenopausal women… source of DHEA available throug DHEA… why a little adipose tissue is good!
205
Q

Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) Location

A
  • Lies in sella turcica - Outlet to brain via hypothalamus by infundibulum - Anterior and Posterior
206
Q

Things that use calcium

A

Nerves

Synapses

Muscle

207
Q

Pendrin

A
  • Transporter that moves iodine into the colloid
208
Q

Hypoglycemic Hormones

A

Insulin

209
Q

Spermatogonia

A
  • Immature sperm
  • Hang out along the edges of the smineferous tubules
  • Move in as they mature into spermatids
  • In close contact with sertoli cells
210
Q

ACTH on Kidney

A

Maintain Z. Glo

211
Q

Path of hormone in post. pit.

A
  • Made at cell body
  • Transport down axon
  • Into blood
212
Q

Cushing’s Disease

A
  • Elevated Cortisol
  • Increase HGO
  • Muscle weakness
  • Increase urea production
  • Central obesity
  • Easily bruised skin
  • Increase response to sympathetic activation
  • Hypertension
  • Increased mieralcorticoid activity (aldosterone)…. increase Na retention, decrease K levels
213
Q

Optic Chiasm

A
  • Info from one eye to another - Right by hypothalaus
214
Q

FSH and Testis

A
  • FSH stimulate sertoli cells
  • Sertoli cells involved in sperm maturation
  • Sertoli cells keep track of number of sperm being made… communicate that to the pituitary via inhibin
215
Q

Anaerobic Threshold

A
  • Has to do with metabolizing lactic acid - More you train, the better your liver gets at the cori cycle
216
Q

Smooth Muscle Morphology

A
  • Increase surface to volume ratio (high surface area per volume)
  • Small cells (2-5 micron diameter)
  • 100-400 micrometers long
217
Q

Which is more active, T3 or T4?

A

T3

218
Q

Crossbridge Formation

A
  1. Ca levels increase
  2. Ca binds to troponin
  3. Tropo-Ca pulls toptomyosin away from actin’s myosin binding site
  4. Myosin binds to active and completes power stroke
  5. Actin filament moves
219
Q

Fasting Glucose

A
  • Good indicator of glucose tolerance level
  • Normal… 100 mg % or below
  • Intolerant is around 125 mg %
220
Q

How to get Type I Diabetes

A
  • Gene
  • Virus… immune system responds and makes antibodies for beta cells in pancreas
  • immune system destroys beta cells over months
221
Q

Leydig Cells

A
  • Make testosterone
222
Q

Isotonic Study

A
  • muscle anchored to a displacement transducer and weight pan
223
Q

How steroid hormones get into cells

A
  • Can move in via cell membranes
  • Bind an intracellular receptor
  • Acts on nucleus
  • Change in gene transcription
224
Q

Cortisol and Bones

A
  • Decrease osteoblast activity
  • Decrease new bone formation
225
Q

Somatostatin

A
  • From D cells
  • Turn off secretion of glucacgon and insulin
226
Q

Cortisol and cardiovascular system

A
  • Maintain alpha 1 receptors for norepinephrine
227
Q

Anterior Pituitary Origin

A
  • Tissue buds developmentally from roof of mouth
228
Q

Increase [Ca] in cytoplasm

A
  • Calcium binds troponin
  • Change shape troponin
  • Change shape of tropomyosin
  • Tropomyosin slides away and allows myosin head to interact with actin
  • Finish hydrolyzing ADPPhosphate to ADP +Pi …. use energy to rotate head and move actin
229
Q

What hormones actually do

A
  • Change rate function within the target cell
230
Q

Testosterone and Central Nervous System

A
  • Sexual behavior
  • Libido
231
Q

G-Protein Coupled Receptor Names

A

GPCR or 7TM

232
Q

Load and muscle velocity

A
  • Greater load, lower speed
233
Q

things that can influence muscle velocity (speed of contraction)

A
  1. ATPase type
  2. Load
  3. Sarcomere length
234
Q

Polydipsia

A
  • Drink more
235
Q

Decrease in cortisol HPA axis

A
  • Less negative feedback for HPA axis
  • Increase CRH from hypothalamus
  • Increase ACTH
236
Q

Myxedema

A
  • Fluid accumulates under the skin - Due to accumulation in glycoprotein - Hypothyroid
237
Q

Troponin C

A

-Subunit on troponin to which Ca binds causes a conformation change

238
Q

Oral Insulin

A

Causes beta cells to secrete more insulin

239
Q

Adrenal Medulla Target Tissues

A
  • Heart
  • Skeletal Muscle
  • Adipose Tissue
  • Liver
  • Lungs
240
Q

Fast Twitch Fiber

A
  • Larger diameter - Pale color - Fatigue easy
241
Q

Phases of the ovarian cycle

A

Follicular (first 14 days)

Lutela (last 14 days)

242
Q

Paracrine Regulation

A
  • Cells talk to neighbors (diffusion) - I.e. Gonad
243
Q

Growth Hormone + Metabolic

A
  • Hyperglycemic - Lipolytic
244
Q

Osteopetrosis

A
  • When bone does not turn over
245
Q

PTH

A

Parathyroid hormone

  • Hypercalcemic (increases plasma Ca)
  • Peptide hormone
246
Q

Growth Hormone - Lipolytic

A
  • Store fats as triglycerides - Break down trigylcerides into FFA
247
Q

Hyperplasia

A

Increase cell size Exhibited in muscles

248
Q

TSH

A
  • Ant. Pit. - Thyroid Stimulating Hormone - Peptide
249
Q

Calcitriol

A

Active form of Vitamin D

Hypercalcemic

250
Q

Adipose tissue + adrenal medulla

A
  • Lipolytic
  • Beta receptor
251
Q

Castrated Animal

A
  • Removes testosterone
  • Increase in FSH and LH
  • If you treat with tesosterone…. decrease LH but not FSH
252
Q

Hypothyroid

A
  • Not enough thyroid hormone - Decrease in MR - Feel tired, cold - Depression, fatigue
253
Q

Two types of ATPasw

A
  • Fast - Slow
254
Q

Three forms of testosterone at cellular level

A
  1. testosterone
  2. becomes DHT
  3. becomes estrogen
255
Q

Gh and Bone Growth

A

Stimulates bone growth - Growth plate - Maturation

256
Q

Effects of Hemicastration

A
  • Initial increase in FSH
  • Remaining teste undergoes compensatory hypertrophy
  • Eventually get a decrease in FSH as sperm production increases
  • Increase sperm production increases inihibin which decreases FSH
257
Q

Timing for Hormones

A
  • Steroids… take a few hours
  • cAMP is FAST, minutes
258
Q

Reinnervation Experiments

A
  • Take type I cell
  • Remove type I axon and re innervate with type II
  • Cell is now type II
  • Re innervation happens at ACh receptor site
  • Can do same thing in reverse…
259
Q

Relaxed State Myosin Head

A
  • Myosin head cocked
  • Close proximity of myosin head and actin
  • ATP is partially hydrolyzed
260
Q

Acromegaly

A
  • Over secretion of GH in adult
  • Hands, face, feet respond… disfigurement
  • Can be caught early
  • Metabolic issues too
261
Q

ob/ob mouse

A
  • Homozygous… becomes obese
  • Parabiose with normal, gets thin
  • Tells us there is something in the blood that makes it obese
  • Jeffrey Friedman… discovered leptin
  • OBOB has defective leptin
  • Gets normal leptin from the normal mouse
262
Q

F- Actin

A
  • Filamentus actin - Made of double helix of G-Actin
263
Q

Type IIb Muscle

A
  • Fast Glycolytic
  • White fibers
  • Easy fatigue
  • Low ox capacity (fewer mito)
  • High SR activity
264
Q

Maximum tension in a muscle fiber (cell) depends on

A
  1. Number of cross bridges formed
  2. Muscle length
  3. Muscle type (fast or slow due to ATPase)
265
Q

Cortisol Metabolic Actions

A
  • Hyperclycemic
  • Increase lipolysis
266
Q

Autocrine Regulation

A
  • Cells talk to themselves - Release peptide or something and bind to cells to change and do something else
267
Q

Norepinephrine receptors

A

alpha

268
Q

Protein Turnover in Skeletal Muscle

A
  • Every 6 Weeks or so
269
Q

Osteocyte

A
  • Mature osteoblast
  • Causes bone resorption (take away Ca)

aka osteocytic osteolysis

270
Q

Actin Regulatory Proteins

A

Troponin (every 7 G actin) Tropomyosin

271
Q

Distance Shortened vs. Time

A
  • Dist/Time = Velocity
272
Q

Stress

A
  • Make cortisol when stressed
273
Q

Oxytocin + Breast Tissue

A
  • Infant suckle sends signal to hypothalamus
  • Stimulates neurosec. neurons which end in post. pit
  • Release oxytocin to blood –> mammary gland
  • Milk letodwn
274
Q

Hyperinsulinemia

A
  • To get over insulin resistance, body makes excess insulin
  • Type II diabetes
275
Q

Goiter

A
  • Increase TSH - Hyperplasia and hypertrophy
276
Q

Anterior Pituitary Overview

A
  • Celles are distinctly separate
277
Q

Ghrelin

A
  • Act on hypothalamus to increase appetite
  • Also increase GH
  • GH = hyperglycemic…. Ghrelin released when blood sugar is low
278
Q

PTH

A
  • Secreted when Ca levels are low
  • Acts on…

Bone

Kidney

Intestine

279
Q

Feedback in Luteal Phase

A
  • Progesterone provides negative feedback on the HPA
  • Keeps FSH and LH low
280
Q

HPA Axis

A

Hypothalamus

CRH (+)

Anterior Pituitary

ACTH (+)

Adrenal Cortex

Cortisol (- on ant. pit, hypo)

281
Q

Graves Antibody

A
  • Agonist
  • Used to be called LATS (long acting thyroid stimulator)
  • Made in immune system
  • Causes decrease in TRH and TSH
282
Q

Why do anabolic steroids shrink testis?

A
  • Decrease GNRH, FSH, and LH
283
Q

What training does

A
  • Increase glycogen storage
  • Increase # mitochondria in muscle cells
  • Increase anaerobic threshold
284
Q

Oxytocin

A
  • Peptide - Smooth muscle contraction - Breast tissue + uterus
285
Q

Isotonic

A
  • Constant tension - Measure muscle shortening
286
Q

Cortisol on skeletal muscle

A
  • Causes protein catabolism
  • Release AA into blood
  • AA circulate to liver where convert to glucose

Gluconeogenesis

287
Q

Renin Angiotensin System

A
  • Regulates K levels
288
Q

Epinephrine receptors

A

beta

289
Q

Synthroid

A

Mix of T3 and T4

290
Q

How G Protein System Works

A
  • Hormone binds receptor stimulating G Protein
  • G protein turns on adenylate cyclase… takes AMP and makes cAMP
  • Increase levels of cAMP in cell
  • cAMP binds protein kinase which phosphorylates proteins
291
Q

Leptin

A
  • Peptide hormone
  • Made when adipose tissue sees glucose
  • Goes into blood and acts on CNS (hypothalamus)
  • Decreases level of NPY neurotransmitter… decreases appetite
292
Q

HGO

A
  • Hepatic glucose output
293
Q

Seminiferous Tubules

A
  • Where sperm are made in the testis
  • Can see spermatogonia on the outside
  • As they mature, move into the tubules and become spermatids
294
Q

Healthy blood sugar level

A

100 mg %

295
Q

RyR

A
  • Protein in sarcoplasmic reticulum
  • Activated by DHP
  • Opens calcium channels…. Ca leaves SR and dumps into cytoplasm
296
Q

Osteocytic Osteolysis

A
  • Osteocytes cause bone resoprtion… remove Ca
  • Every 11 months Ca is turned over
297
Q

Economy of Force Equation

A

EOF = Force * Time/ATP Used

298
Q

Beta Cells

A
  • Islets of Langerhans - Make insulin
299
Q

Glucagon

A
  • Peptide hormone from alpha cells
  • Secrete when blood glucose low
  • Acts to bring up blood sugar
  • Targets: liver and adipose tissue
300
Q

Tissues involved in Ca Regulation

A

Bone

Small intestine… absorb

Kidney… excrete

301
Q

GLUT 4 Location and Km

A
  • Muscle, fat cells
  • Medium affinity for glucose
302
Q

Gene in type I diabetes

A
  • MHC Gene - 50%
303
Q

M-Line

A
  • Middle of the mysoin
304
Q

Caveolae

A
  • In-folds on smooth muscle membrane - Conserve Ca and increase surface area
305
Q

Other types of regulation that are not endocrine

A
  • Paracrine - Autocrine
306
Q

Zona Reticularis

A
  • Make DHEA
307
Q

Testosterone as a Metabolic Hormone

A
  • Anabolic
  • Increases protein synthesis
  • Increase # RBC
  • Testosterone is lipolytic
  • Promotes closure of the epiphyseal disc during puberty
308
Q

ACh –> Contraction

A
  • AP down motor axon releases ACh….
  • ACh binds to nicotinic Channel (increase g Na and g K –> LCF –> AP in muscle membrane)
  • AP sent down T-Tubule and stimulates DHP
  • DHP interacts with RyR… open Ca channels, Ca into cytoplasm
309
Q

Osteon

A

Functional group of the bone

  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteoclasts
  • Osteocytes
310
Q

Testosterone and Secondary Sexual Characteristics

A
  • Distribution of body hair
  • Deepening of boice
  • Acts on sebaceous glands…. overstimulation = acne
311
Q

Somatomedin Hypothesis

A
  • “Growth Mediator” - Ant. Pit. releases growth hormone which acts on the liver which makes IGF-1
312
Q

Daughaday Flaw

A
  • Wasn’t sensistive enough
  • TH… backup system to make bone grow
  • IGF in blood negative feedback tohelp regulate growth hormone Much more complex than he gave credit for
313
Q

Axon and Muscle

A
  • Stimulates contraction of muscle - Gives cell information abuot what type of muscle cell it is going to be - Set up in development
314
Q

Somatostatin Effects on GH

A

Decrease GH

315
Q

Incretins

A
  • From GI tract (intestine)
  • 2 peptides (GLP1 and GIP)
  • Causes insulin secretion
316
Q

Calcium Absorption in Small Intestine

A

400-500 mg Ca in the GI tract per meal

317
Q

Jet Lag

A
  • Travel faster than your biological clock
318
Q

Protein Anabolic

A
  • Increase protein synthesis
319
Q

Islets of Langerhans Cell Types

A
  • Alpha - Beta - D
320
Q

Steroid Hormones

A
  • 27 C, based on cholesterole - Modified through series of enzyme reactions - Not very water soluble
321
Q

Follicular Phase Overview

A
  • First 14 days
  • Follicles develop in ovary
  • Peak of FSH promotes follicular development
  • Follicles make estrogen (increase estrogen)
322
Q

Achondroplastic Dwarf

A
  • Have GH
  • Lack specific fibroblast growth factor receptor 3
  • Normal head, hands, fet
  • Short torso
323
Q

Calcitonin

A
  • Hypocalcemic
  • Secreted when there is an increase of Ca in plasma
  • Acts on one
  • More important in juvelies
324
Q

Thyroid Structure

A
  • Up along windpipe - L and R lobes - Connects by ismus - Follicle cell layer - Inside is the colloid
325
Q

Initiation of contraction

A
  • ATP fully hydrolyzed to ADP + Pi
326
Q

Nutrition and Growth

A
  • Nutrients –> liver
  • Good nutrition more IGF-I
  • Growth
  • Connection between endocrine control, growth, nutrition
327
Q

Isometric

A
  • Keep length of muscle constant - Measure tension development
328
Q

Pancreas Endocrine

A
  • Blood Islets of Langerhans
329
Q

Adiponectin

A
  • Hormone from adipose tissue
  • Target is skeletal muscle
  • Increase insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle
330
Q

Estrogen and Testosterone act more on….

A

LH

331
Q

Calcitonin and Bone

A
  • Decrease osteocytic osteolysis
  • Decrease osteoclast formation
332
Q

Nebulin

A
  • Structural protein in actin
  • Runs through the middle
  • Helps align actin
333
Q

Action potential in cardiac muscle

A
  • LONG - Couple of hundred msec - Heart muscle cannot tetanize
334
Q

Adrenal medulla + liver

A
  • Increase glycogenolysis
  • Increase HGO
335
Q

Hemoglobin A1C

A
  • Glycosylated hb
  • non eznymatic glycation
  • Test shows glucose control over a long period of time

Normal: 5.7% or below

Prediabetic: 5.7- 6.4%

Diabetic 6.5% +

336
Q

Why is calcitonin likely more useful for juveniles?

A
  • Higher Ca in diet
337
Q

Frank-Starling

A
  • FOC proprotational to amount of blood
  • More blood, more stretch
  • Get slightly betwtter A/M overlap and crossbridge
  • With heart stretch, better overlap, more cross, more force!
338
Q

Oxytocin in Males

A
  • Smooth muscle contraction in reproductive tract for ejaculation of sperm
339
Q

Insulin Basics

A
  • Peptide hormone
  • 1 long chain
  • Proinsulin –> active form
340
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A
  • Outer adrenal gland - Makes steroid hormones - Three layers = Zonas…. glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis
341
Q

ADH

A
  • Post. Pit. - Antidiuretic Hormone - Acts on kidney to decrease urine flow and increase water retention
342
Q

Tetanus

A
  • Given enough stimulation to complete a full smooth contraction
343
Q

FSH

A
  • Ant Pit - Follicle stimulating hormone - Peptide
344
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

A

FLAT PiG (All peptide)

FSH

LH

ACTH

TSH

Prolactin

GH

345
Q

Three organs in type II diabetes

A

Liver

Skeletal muscle

Adipose Tissue

346
Q

Visceral Smooth Muscle

A
  • Gap junctions… transmit electrical signals from cell to cell
  • Can contract spontaneously (one cell contracts and others follow in wave)
  • Less innervation than multi
347
Q

What Coffee Does

A
  • Inhibits PDE
  • Increase urination
  • Increase glomerular filtration rate in kidneys
  • Boost liver, increase glycogen
348
Q

Stress and muscle cells

A
  • Training makes your muscles BIGGER … does not change the number of cells, just increases the number of myofibrils
349
Q

Where do you get ATP

A
  • Glycosysis - Oxidative phosphorylation
350
Q

Central obesity

A
  • Symptom of Cushing’s
  • Deposits of fat around central part of the body
  • Oftentimes striations
351
Q

Male Endocrine System

A

Hypothalamus

  • GNRH

Anterior Pituitary

  • LH
  • FSH

Testis

  • Testosterone (negative on Ant.Pit. and Hypo)
  • Inhibin (Decrease FSH)
352
Q

Classical Divisions for Smooth Muscle

A
  • Multi Unit - Visceral
353
Q

Third source of ATP for muscle

A
  • Creatine phoshphate can take phosphate and donate it to ADP to help regenerate ATP pool
  • Resting while working out… regenerate ATP pool with creatine phosphate
354
Q

Nursing as Birth Control

A
  • While nursing, decrease production of LH and FSH - No ovulaiton
355
Q

Graves Disease

A
  • Autoimmune
  • Body makes antibody that acts on TSH receptor
  • Antibody is an agonist
  • Increase T3 and T4… hyperthyroid
  • Diagnose by measuring T3, T4, and TSH
356
Q

Myosin

A
  • Thick filaments
357
Q

Lactic Acid Buildup

A
  • Contributes to fatigue - Not the whole story
358
Q

Multi Unit Smooth Muscle - Iris

A
  • External stimulus for contraction
  • No action potential
  • Let Ca do its thing
359
Q

Timing of muscles

A
  • Lag time between electrical signaling and when you see tension
360
Q

Db/Db Mouse

A
  • Obese and diabetic
  • Parabiose to normal mouse
  • Stays obese
  • Defective leptin receptor
361
Q

X-int of Velocity vs. Load

A
  • Reflects number of crossbridges
362
Q

Negative Feedback Example

A
  • T3 and T4 negative feedback on hypothalamus - Stop TRH
363
Q

What signals the start of the luteal phase?

A
  • Estrogen from follicle cells –> HPA –> secrete LH
364
Q

Metabolic Syndrom Consequences

A
  • Increase cardiovascular disease
  • Decrease wound healing
  • Increase kidney disease
  • Increase blindness
  • Increase nerve pain (due to decrease myelination)
365
Q

Lipolytic

A

Mobilize free fatty acids

366
Q

Thyroid Biochemistry

A
  • Tyrosine coupled with another tyrosine to make hormones - 3 Iodine …. T3 - 4 Iodine… T4
367
Q

Proinsulin

A
  • Three sets of disulfide bonds that form this structure - Clip off C peptide to make active
368
Q

Contractile componenets

A
  • Actin, myosin, crossbridge cycle
369
Q

Breaking up Actin and Myosin

A
  • Bring in fresh ATP - Causes a steric change that will allow you to separate them - Partially hydrolyze it… next cycle!
370
Q

NPY Neurotransmitter

A
  • Acted on by leptin
  • Controls appetite
  • Decrease NPY, decrease appetite
371
Q

Metabolic Hormone

A
  • Increase protein synthesis
  • Hyperglycemic
  • Lipolytic
  • Energy mobilizer
372
Q

Different Biochemical Hormone Types

A
  • Tyrosine Derivative
  • Steroid
  • Protein/Peptide
  • Prostaglandins
373
Q

Adiponectin and Fat

A
  • Increase fat, decrease plasma adiponectin
  • Skeletal muscle become insulin resistant
374
Q

Renal blood flow

A

Blood flow to the kidneys

375
Q

Role of reproductive endocrinology in males

A
  • Produce sperm
  • Produce testosterone
376
Q

Endocrine System Overview

A
  • Hormones from glands
  • Small quantities
  • Circulate and act on target tissue
  • Broad and specific
377
Q

Inhibin Inhibits (Male)

A

FSH

378
Q

What defines a target tissue?

A

RECEPTORS

379
Q

GIP

A

Glucose independent insulinotrophic peptide - Incretins

380
Q

Metabolic Syndrome

A
  • Type II Diabetes is an example
  • Hyperinsulinemia
  • Insulin resistance
  • Glucose intolerance
  • Hyerlipidemia
  • Hyertriglyeridemia
  • Hypertension
381
Q

Beta Cell Exhaustion

A
  • From hyperinsulinemia
  • Beta cells just wear out
  • Type II diabetes
382
Q

Heterolagous Disease

A
  • Multiple sources or causes result in the same clinical picture
  • I.e. Type II Diabetes
383
Q

Tension vs. Freq

A

Y: Tension

X: Freq

Twitch –> wave summation –> tetanus

384
Q

G- Protein Receptors

A
  • Receptors coupled to G proteins
  • Signal transduction starts with G protein
  • Uses cAMP as a secondary messenger
385
Q

IGF-I

A
  • Insulin like growth factor 1
  • Peptide
  • Similar to insulin

- Acts on bone causing it to grow

  • Bone itself also makes IGF-I and can act in autocrine paracrine matter
  • GH can act on bone too
386
Q

Prednisone Taper

A
  • Large dose of cortisol…. decrease CRH, ACTH, cortisol from body
  • If you come off too quickly, do not have own cortisol
  • Decrease alpha-1 receptors, decrease blood pressure, pass out.
387
Q

Working out and muscles

A
  • Stress muscles
  • Micro tears
  • Lay down more protein/ number of myofibrils and sarcomeres
  • Increasing number of sarcomeres in parallel and increase ability to generate tension
388
Q

Smooth Muscle Cell

A
  • Long and small
  • Nucleated
  • No SR
  • No T Tubule
  • No troponin and tropomyosin
389
Q

Insulin Actions

A
  • Increase cell permeability to glucose
  • Increase glycogen storage in the liver + skeletal muscle
  • Decrease gluconeogensis
  • Increase AA transport into cells
  • Increase lipogeneiss in adipose
  • Increase K into cells
390
Q

Motor Unit

A

Motor neuron and the skeletal muscle cell/fiber it innervates… the size of the motor unit varies

391
Q

Thyroid responds to increase TSH by

A
  • Hyperplasia and hypertrophy
  • Increase cell number and size
  • GOITER
392
Q

Hashimoto’s Disease

A
  • Immune system makes antagonistic antibody to block TSH receptor
  • Decrease T3 and T4
  • Sluggish and fatigued
  • Increase TRH and TSH
  • With extra TSH to act on thyroid… possible for TSH to outcompete antiboid
  • Hypothyroid in waves
  • When negative feedback kicks in go euthyroid
  • More antagonist go to hypo
393
Q

Sliding filament theory

A
  • Myosin heads pull actin together… shorten sarcomere - Contraction
394
Q

Skeletal muscle + adrenal medulla

A
  • increase blood flow - increase beta adrenergic receptors
395
Q

Girls mature first because

A
  • Hypothalamic axis matures first
396
Q

Gluconeogenic

A
  • Make glucose from new sources
397
Q

Deiodinase

A
  • Enzyme - Converts T4 to T3 - Can make active form of hormone in target tissue

Bio II (6 decks)

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