Exam #4 Study Guide Flashcards by Amber Barnhart

What is plant growth defined as?

A) Temporary increase in size

B) Increase in number of chloroplasts

C) Irreversible increase in mass due to cell division and enlargement

D) Decrease in cell division

C) Irreversible increase in mass due to cell division and enlargement

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What is determinate growth?

A) Continuous growth every year

B) Growth that stops after one season

C) Growth that depends on the moon cycle

D) Growth that continues after flowering

B) Growth that stops after one season

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What is indeterminate growth?

A) Growth that occurs once a year

B) Growth limited to early seedling stages

C) Growth that continues for several to many years

D) Growth dependent on flowering

C) Growth that continues for several to many years

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What do nutrients provide for plants?

A) Color and scent

B) Structural support only

C) Elements and energy for growth and maintenance

D) Defense against herbivores

C) Elements and energy for growth and maintenance

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Where are vitamins synthesized in plants?

A) Stomata

B) Phloem only

C) Cell membranes and cytoplasm

D) Roots only

C) Cell membranes and cytoplasm

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How do hormones function in plant cells?

A) Act as structural molecules

B) Trigger cell death

C) Chemically bind to receptors and initiate biochemical changes

D) Are used up in respiration

C) Chemically bind to receptors and initiate biochemical changes

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What is auxin primarily responsible for?

A) Root cap development

B) Water transport

C) Stem elongation, apical dominance, and root formation

D) Flower color

C) Stem elongation, apical dominance, and root formation

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Where is auxin mainly produced?

A) Mature stems

B) Shoot apical meristem and young leaves

C) Flowers and fruits

D) Root cap only

B) Shoot apical meristem and young leaves

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How does auxin affect phototropism?

A) Inhibits growth on all sides

B) Accumulates on light side of plant

C) Accumulates on shaded side, causing elongation there

D) Doesn’t respond to light

C) Accumulates on shaded side, causing elongation there

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What is the function of cytokinins?

A) Stimulate seed dormancy

B) Promote aging of tissues

C) Promote cell division and delay senescence

D) Inhibit chlorophyll production

C) Promote cell division and delay senescence

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Low cytokinin to auxin ratio promotes:

A) Shoot formation

B) Root formation

C) Leaf senescence

D) Bud inhibition

B) Root formation

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High cytokinin to auxin ratio promotes:

A) Root formation

B) Leaf drop

C) Shoot formation

D) Fruit ripening

C) Shoot formation

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Gibberellins promote which of the following?

A) Seed dormancy

B) Stem elongation and seed germination

C) Leaf drop

D) Cell death

B) Stem elongation and seed germination

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What is the main function of abscisic acid?

A) Promotes cell expansion

B) Stimulates growth during stress

C) Induces dormancy and responds to water stress

D) Causes fruit ripening

C) Induces dormancy and responds to water stress

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Which hormone is a gas and promotes fruit ripening?

A) Auxin

B) Cytokinin

C) Ethylene

D) Gibberellin

C) Ethylene

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What hormone controls positive phototropism?

A) Ethylene

B) Cytokinin

C) Auxin

D) Gibberellin

C) Auxin

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Gravitropism in roots is:

A) Negative

B) Positive

C) Lateral

D) Indeterminate

B) Positive

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Gravitropism in shoots is:

A) Negative

B) Positive

C) Neutral

D) Strongly inhibited by light

A) Negative

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Thigmotropism is a response to:

A) Water

B) Touch or contact with objects

C) Light

D) Temperature

B) Touch or contact with objects

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Photoperiodism is a plant’s response to:

A) Temperature changes

B) Soil nutrients

C) Daylight length

D) Mechanical damage

C) Daylight length

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Phytochrome Pr absorbs:

A) Far-red light

B) Red light

C) Blue light

D) UV light

B) Red light

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FT gene stimulates:

A) Leaf drop

B) Root growth

C) Flowering

D) Seed dormancy

C) Flowering

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A plant kept in the dark starts growing tall and spindly, reaching toward the light.
Which hormone is most likely causing this elongation, and how does it work in this case?

Auxin accumulates on the shaded side of the stem and causes cells there to elongate, which makes the plant bend toward light = phototropism 🌞🌿

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A farmer notices that fruits on her tomato plants are ripening unevenly. She decides to expose them to a naturally occurring gas to even out ripening.
What hormone is she using?

A) Auxin
B) Cytokinin
C) Ethylene
D) Abscisic Acid

C) Ethylene

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You're trying to grow new plants in tissue culture. If you want to promote root growth, what should you do with the hormone ratio? A) Use high cytokinin and low auxin B) Use low cytokinin and high auxin C) Use equal amounts of both D) Avoid using hormones

B) Use low cytokinin and high auxin

A seed exposed to cold for several weeks suddenly begins to germinate when moved to a warm, moist area. Which hormone likely decreased, allowing germination to occur?

Abscisic Acid (ABA) decreased. ABA induces dormancy. Cold stratification helps break it down, allowing germination to begin once favorable conditions return ❄️➡️🌧️

A vine touches a nearby support post and starts to wrap around it. What type of movement is this, and what hormone is involved in the growth response?

Thigmotropism, controlled by auxin. Touch = thigmo, and auxin causes cells on the opposite side to elongate, bending the plant around the object 💃🪴

A plant growing upside down in the dark still sends its roots downward and shoots upward. What kind of tropism is this showing, and what hormone directs the growth?

Gravitropism, directed by auxin. Roots = positive gravitropism Shoots = negative gravitropism Auxin builds up on lower sides and affects growth differently in roots vs. shoots 👇☝️

If you removed the shoot tip of a young plant, the lateral buds on the sides begin to grow more actively. What process is being disrupted, and what hormone is no longer suppressing the lateral buds?

Apical dominance was removed. Auxin from the apical meristem suppresses side bud growth — once it's gone, cytokinins can stimulate lateral growth 🌿🌿🌿

What problem would a plant have if it did not have enough gibberellins? Explain.

If a plant didn't have enough gibberellins, it would have stunted growth because gibberellins promote both cell elongation and cell division. Without them, the plant’s stems would stay short, and it might not be able to break dormancy or germinate properly. Gibberellins also help make stems more flexible (this is called cell wall loosening) so cells can elongate.

How are cytokinins used commercially in tissue cultures in biotechnology labs?

Since cytokinins help to prevent aging and cell death, they are used in tissue cultures with auxins to determine whether roots or shoots develop. By adjusting the ratio of cytokinins to auxins, scientists can control how the tissue develops and can regenerate whole plants from small samples.

3. List the three advantages that abscisic acid gives a plant. Explain when these advantages might be particularly valuable.

Three advantages that abscisic acid gives a plant are promotion of dormancy, closure of stomata, and slowed growth. These advantages are particularly viable when environmental conditions are poor such as during droughts or extreme temperatures.

Some people place fresh fruit in bags to increase the speed of ripening. Which hormone is being concentrated by this action and what three things are influenced by this hormone?

The hormone concentrated in bags to increase the speed of ripening is ethylene. It promotes fruit ripening, causes leaf abscission, and triggers the aging of flowers and leaves.

Which group is most likely the ancestral origin of modern plants? A) Brown algae B) Red algae C) Cyanobacteria D) Green algae

D) Green algae

What adaptation helps plants conserve water in a terrestrial environment? A) Xylem B) Cuticle C) Stomata D) Rhizoids

B) Cuticle

What is the function of stomata in plants? A) Protect against herbivores B) Absorb nutrients from soil C) Allow gas exchange D) Anchor the plant

C) Allow gas exchange

What describes alternation of generations in plants? A) Plants alternate between haploid and diploid unicellular stages B) Plants alternate between a diploid zygote and haploid gamete C) Plants alternate between multicellular haploid and diploid generations D) Plants alternate between flowering and non-flowering phases

C) Plants alternate between multicellular haploid and diploid generations

What structure produces sperm in bryophytes? A) Archegonium B) Antheridium C) Spore D) Gametangium

B) Antheridium

. Which term refers to the reproductive cell that gives rise to offspring without fertilization? A) Egg B) Spore C) Zygote D) Embryo

B) Spore

Which stage in the plant life cycle begins as a zygote and produces spores? A) Gametophyte B) Sporophyte C) Archegonium D) Protonema

B) Sporophyte

How do most bryophytes absorb water? A) Through roots B) Through leaves with stomata C) Directly through the surface D) Through xylem and phloem

C) Directly through the surface

Which bryophyte structure is associated with food conduction in some species? A) Hydroid B) Leptoid C) Stomata D) Thallus

B) Leptoid

Which bryophyte phylum includes liverworts like Marchantia? A) Bryophyta B) Anthocerophyta C) Hepaticophyta D) Lycopodiophyta

C) Hepaticophyta

In Marchantia, what is the name of the female gamete-bearing structure? A) Archegoniophore B) Archegonium C) Gametangium D) Calyptra

A) Archegoniophore

What protects the immature sporophyte in liverworts? A) Operculum B) Calyptra C) Capsule D) Elater

B) Calyptra

What is a distinguishing feature of hornwort sporophytes? A) They lack stomata B) They elongate from the base C) They lack chloroplasts D) They are rootless

B) They elongate from the base

What structure in hornworts contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria? A) Rhizoids B) Archegonia C) Mucilage-filled cavities D) Calyptra

C) Mucilage-filled cavities

Which group includes mosses like peat moss and rock moss? A) Hepaticophyta B) Bryophyta C) Anthocerophyta D) Lycophyta

B) Bryophyta

What moss structure opens and closes in response to humidity to release spores? A) Peristome B) Operculum C) Calyptra D) Protonema

A) Peristome

What is the name of the early filamentous gametophyte stage in mosses? A) Protonema B) Thallus C) Sporocyte D) Paraphysis

A) Protonema

What makes peat moss especially useful to humans? A) Its photosynthetic rate B) Its vascular tissue C) Its water retention and antiseptic properties D) Its chloroplast density

C) Its water retention and antiseptic properties

. What is the ecological role of mosses as pioneer species? A) Prevent seed germination B) Inhibit photosynthesis C) Help initiate soil formation on bare rock D) Fix atmospheric nitrogen

C) Help initiate soil formation on bare rock

Which moss structure produces spores via meiosis? A) Archegonium B) Antheridium C) Capsule D) Protonema

C) Capsule

You find a small green plant growing directly on a rock with no roots, no vascular tissue, and a visible leafy structure. Based on this info, what is most likely the dominant stage of its life cycle? A) Sporophyte B) Gametophyte C) Spore D) Zygote

B) Gametophyte

During a drought, a patch of liverworts dries up but quickly recovers after a rain. Which characteristic of bryophytes explains this resilience? A) Presence of a waxy cuticle B) Dormant vascular xylem C) Ability to absorb water directly across their surface D) Taproot system for deep water access

C) Ability to absorb water directly across their surface

A botanist finds a bryophyte sporophyte that is photosynthetic and grows continuously from its base. Which group is this plant likely from? A) Liverworts (Hepaticophyta) B) Mosses (Bryophyta) C) Hornworts (Anthocerophyta) D) Ferns

C) Hornworts (Anthocerophyta)

A researcher genetically modifies a moss to lack its peristome teeth. What effect would this most likely have? A) The plant could not undergo photosynthesis B) It would no longer produce spores C) Spore dispersal would be less controlled and less efficient D) It would not develop a gametophyte generation

C) Spore dispersal would be less controlled and less efficient

A student studying Marchantia notes that some of the structures are umbrella-shaped, while others look like tiny palm trees. What are these structures used for? A) They are sterile leaves used for water collection B) They protect developing spores C) They are male and female gametophore structures D) They are the base of the sporophyte

C) They are male and female gametophore structures

A patch of peat moss is removed from a wetland area. What would be the most immediate ecological consequence? A) Decreased nitrogen fixation B) Decreased water retention and soil acidity C) Loss of shade and reduced temperature D) Increased oxygen concentration in soil

B) Decreased water retention and soil acidity

In a lab experiment, a bryophyte is exposed to increased nitrogen levels. Which structure might it rely on to help process this nutrient in a symbiotic relationship? A) Rhizoids B) Archegonia C) Mucilage-filled cavities D) Operculum

C) Mucilage-filled cavities

If a moss gametophyte fails to develop its protonema, what would most likely happen? A) The plant would produce too many spores B) Fertilization would occur too early C) The gametophyte would never mature properly D) The sporophyte would grow in the wrong place

C) The gametophyte would never mature properly

You are comparing different mosses and notice that one has poorly developed hydroids. What challenge might this moss face? A) Poor water conduction B) Difficulty photosynthesizing C) Inability to produce spores D) Uncontrolled leaf growth

A) Poor water conduction

A liverwort with no visible sexual structures is placed in a moist dish, and several small, identical plants appear after a week. What structure likely caused this? A) Antheridium B) Archegonium C) Rhizoids D) Gemmae

D) Gemmae

What major evolutionary developments appeared in early vascular plants? A) Seeds and fruits B) Rhizoids and gametangia C) Vascular tissue, true leaves, and roots D) Flowers and pollen

C) Vascular tissue, true leaves, and roots

Which plant group has a dominant sporophyte and relies on water for reproduction? A) Angiosperms B) Gymnosperms C) Seedless vascular plants D) Algae

C) Seedless vascular plants

What describes microphylls found in Lycophyta and Equisetophyta? A) Leaves with multiple veins and leaf gaps B) Veinless flaps that lack photosynthesis C) Tiny leaves with a single vein and no leaf gap D) Large, highly divided photosynthetic structures

C) Tiny leaves with a single vein and no leaf gap

In Psilotophyta (whisk ferns), what structures are used for photosynthesis? A) Megaphylls B) Microphylls C) Enations D) Chloroplasts in roots

C) Enations

What describes the gametophyte of a whisk fern? A) Above-ground, leafy, and green B) Subterranean, lacking chlorophyll, with rhizoids and mycorrhizae C) A floating green disc D) A small cone-like sporophyte

B) Subterranean, lacking chlorophyll, with rhizoids and mycorrhizae

What ancient plant is considered ancestral to club mosses? A) Rhynia B) Zosterophyllum C) Aglaophyton D) Calamites

B) Zosterophyllum

Which genera are living representatives of Phylum Lycophyta? A) Lycopodium and Psilotum B) Lycopodium and Selaginella C) Selaginella and Calamites D) Equisetum and Isoetes

B) Lycopodium and Selaginella

What reproductive structure is found in Lycopodium and bears sporangia? A) Frond B) Ligule C) Sporophyll D) Megasporangium

C) Sporophyll

What is heterospory in Selaginella? A) Production of spores without meiosis B) Development of gametophytes underground C) Production of two types of spores: microspores and megaspores D) Loss of alternation of generations

C) Production of two types of spores: microspores and megaspores

What feature distinguishes Isoetes (quillworts)? A) Broad leaves with enations B) Stem with silica and stomata in ribs C) Corms with vascular cambium and spirally arranged microphylls D) Cone-shaped sporophytes with true flowers

C) Corms with vascular cambium and spirally arranged microphylls

What was the dominant tree-like relative of club mosses during the Carboniferous period? A) Calamites B) Aglaophyton C) Lepidodendron D) Psilophyton

C) Lepidodendron

What is a defining feature of Equisetum (horsetails)? A) Fronds with sori B) Branched stems lacking silica C) Jointed, ribbed stems with whorled leaves and silica in walls D) Cone-shaped sporophytes with megaspores only

C) Jointed, ribbed stems with whorled leaves and silica in walls

What is the function of elaters in Equisetum spores? A) Increase water absorption B) Aid in spore dispersal C) Form sperm cells D) Anchor the gametophyte

B) Aid in spore dispersal

In ferns, what is the name of the leaf? A) Frond B) Megaphyll C) Rhizome D) Pinna

A) Frond

What is the fiddlehead (crozier) of a fern? A) A reproductive cone B) A young coiled frond C) A leaf base that anchors the plant D) A modified sporangium

B) A young coiled frond

What structure produces and releases spores in ferns? A) Prothallus B) Annulus C) Strobilus D) Archegonium

B) Annulus

What is a prothallus? A) The coiled frond of a young fern B) The gametophyte of a fern C) A segment of a mature fern leaf D) The root system of a whisk fern

B) The gametophyte of a fern

In ferns, where are sori located? A) On the tips of rhizoids B) In grooves between ribs C) On the underside of fronds D) On the root caps

C) On the underside of fronds

What is the human/ecological significance of ferns? A) Used as fuel and fertilizer B) Used for rope and timber C) Used in air filtering, ornamentals, food, and weaving D) Only used as decorative paper

C) Used in air filtering, ornamentals, food, and weaving

A plant has microphylls with a single vein, spores arranged in cones, and roots. It produces both megaspores and microspores. What genus does it likely belong to? A) Lycopodium B) Isoetes C) Selaginella D) Equisetum

C) Selaginella

A fossilized plant from the Carboniferous period shows secondary xylem, bark-like tissues, and leaf scars arranged in a spiral pattern. Which extinct plant is it most likely to be? A) Lepidodendron B) Rhynia C) Psilotum D) Calamites

A) Lepidodendron

A student observes a gametophyte that is photosynthetic, heart-shaped, and produces both antheridia and archegonia. What type of plant is the sporophyte most likely from? A) Hornwort B) Liverwort C) Fern D) Lycopodium

C) Fern

You examine a stem cross-section with hollow internodes, silica deposits, and whorled microphylls. Which plant genus are you observing? A) Selaginella B) Isoetes C) Psilotum D) Equisetum

D) Equisetum

A small, rootless plant with no true leaves is growing near a hot spring. It has green, photosynthetic stems and its spores are produced in small, three-lobed structures. What group does this likely represent? A) Psilotophyta (whisk ferns) B) Lycopodiophyta (club mosses) C) Pterophyta (ferns) D) Equisetophyta (horsetails)

A) Psilotophyta (whisk ferns)

A plant in a tissue culture lab fails to form a sporophyte despite producing spores. Genetic testing reveals it produces only one type of spore. What reproductive strategy is it using? A) Heterospory B) Asexual reproduction C) Homospory D) Apomixis

C) Homospory

While hiking, you notice ferns growing in damp, shady areas. The leaves are unfurling in a spiral. What specific term describes this stage? A) Sori B) Annulus C) Prothallus D) Fiddlehead

D) Fiddlehead

A researcher notices that spores of Equisetum are not dispersing well in dry lab conditions. What structure might be malfunctioning or absent? A) Sori B) Annulus C) Elaters D) Indusium

C) Elaters

A student observes two sporophytes: one with a strobilus containing sporophylls and another with sori on the underside of fronds. Which two groups do these belong to? A) Fern and moss B) Selaginella and fern C) Psilotum and hornwort D) Liverwort and Isoetes

B) Selaginella and fern

A botanist finds a sporophyte with enations instead of true leaves and rhizomes but no roots. The gametophyte is non-photosynthetic and lives underground. What group is this plant from? A) Lycopodiophyta B) Psilotophyta C) Equisetophyta D) Anthocerophyta

B) Psilotophyta

What major evolutionary developments appeared in early vascular plants? A) Seeds and fruits B) Rhizoids and gametangia C) Vascular tissue, true leaves, and roots D) Flowers and pollen

C) Vascular tissue, true leaves, and roots

Which plant group has a dominant sporophyte and relies on water for reproduction? A) Angiosperms B) Gymnosperms C) Seedless vascular plants D) Algae

C) Seedless vascular plants

C) Tiny leaves with a single vein and no leaf gap

In Psilotophyta (whisk ferns), what structures are used for photosynthesis? A) Megaphylls B) Microphylls C) Enations D) Chloroplasts in roots

C) Enations

What makes seeds reproductively superior to spores? A) Seeds germinate faster B) Seeds contain a zygote C) Seeds are multicellular with stored food and protective coating D) Seeds require less water to grow

C) Seeds are multicellular with stored food and protective coating

What is the function of the integument in a seed? A) Photosynthesis B) Nutrient absorption C) Becomes the seed coat after fertilization D) Forms the embryo

C) Becomes the seed coat after fertilization

Gymnosperm seeds are described as "naked" because: A) They develop inside ovaries B) They are exposed on the surface of cones C) They lack a seed coat D) They develop inside a fruit

B) They are exposed on the surface of cones

Which structure produces pollen in gymnosperms? A) Ovule B) Archegonium C) Male cone (pollen cone) D) Seed coat

C) Male cone (pollen cone)

What structure houses the female gametophyte in gymnosperms? A) Antheridium B) Ovule C) Micropyle D) Pollen tube

B) Ovule

Which of the following is NOT a living phylum of gymnosperms? A) Pinophyta B) Ginkgophyta C) Cycadophyta D) Angiospermophyta

D) Angiospermophyta

What adaptation allows conifer leaves to conserve water? A) Thin cuticle and large surface area B) Stomata on the upper surface C) Recessed stomata and thick cuticle D) Spongy mesophyll with air spaces

C) Recessed stomata and thick cuticle

What feature of pine wood classifies it as softwood? A) Presence of fibers B) Absence of tracheids C) Absence of thick-walled vessel elements D) High photosynthetic activity

C) Absence of thick-walled vessel elements

What adds buoyancy to pine pollen grains, aiding in wind dispersal? A) Spines B) Wings C) Air sacs D) Oil droplets

C) Air sacs

In conifers, how many megaspores survive to form the female gametophyte? A) Four B) Three C) Two D) One

D) One

What structure allows pollen to reach the female gametophyte in conifers? A) Archegonium B) Micropyle C) Ovary D) Resin canal

B) Micropyle

hat becomes the nutritive tissue for the embryo in pine seeds? A) Integument B) Ovule C) Female gametophyte D) Endosperm

C) Female gametophyte

How long does it take a pine seed cone to fully mature? A) One season B) Two years C) Six months D) Five years

B) Two years

Which gymnosperm has fleshy seeds with a bad odor and fan-shaped leaves? A) Cycad B) Gnetum C) Ginkgo D) Welwitschia

C) Ginkgo

Which gymnosperm group has plants resembling palms and may be beetle-pollinated? A) Pinophyta B) Cycadophyta C) Gnetophyta D) Ginkgophyta

B) Cycadophyta

Which gymnosperm has only two straplike leaves that split with age? A) Ginkgo B) Ephedra C) Gnetum D) Welwitschia

D) Welwitschia

Which conifer produces fleshy cones often mistaken for berries? A) Fir B) Juniper C) Spruce D) Yew

B) Juniper

What commercial product is derived from the bark of the Pacific yew tree? A) Turpentine B) Resin C) Taxol (anti-cancer drug) D) Ephedrine

C) Taxol (anti-cancer drug)

Which gymnosperm group includes Ephedra, used in respiratory medicine? A) Cycadophyta B) Pinophyta C) Gnetophyta D) Ginkgophyta

C) Gnetophyta

Which of the following is a dioecious gymnosperm? A) Ginkgo B) Pine C) Fir D) Spruce

A) Ginkgo

A botanist discovers a plant with needle-like leaves, pollen cones, and seeds that develop exposed on the surface of female cones. What conclusion can be made about this plant? A) It is an angiosperm B) It is a gymnosperm C) It lacks a vascular system D) It reproduces only asexually

B) It is a gymnosperm

student compares pine and flowering plant seeds and finds that pine seeds lack fruit and develop from an exposed ovule. What term best describes this condition? A) Enclosed ovules B) Endospermic seeds C) Naked seeds D) Seedless reproduction

C) Naked seeds

A pine tree loses many of its needles but continues to thrive during winter. What leaf adaptation most likely contributes to its survival? A) Broad, flat leaves with high stomatal density B) Thin epidermis and no cuticle C) Recessed stomata and thick cuticle D) Chloroplasts in bark tissue

C) Recessed stomata and thick cuticle

While observing pollen under a microscope, a researcher notes small air sacs attached to each grain. What advantage do these structures provide? A) They trap water for germination B) They aid in pollinator attraction C) They reduce weight and aid wind dispersal D) They fertilize the egg directly

C) They reduce weight and aid wind dispersal

A scientist notices a pine tree with an immature seed cone. She predicts it will take several growing seasons to mature. What timeline is she likely referring to? A) Two years B) Six months C) One month D) Three weeks

A) Two years

A tree is discovered with seeds that emit a foul smell and are not enclosed in fruit. Its leaves are fan-shaped and it is dioecious. What is the plant most likely? A) Pine B) Gnetum C) Ginkgo D) Ephedra

C) Ginkgo

A horticulturist wants to propagate a gymnosperm species with both male and female reproductive structures on separate individuals. What should she check before planting? A) Number of cotyledons B) Presence of a taproot C) Whether the species is monoecious or dioecious D) Length of needle leaves

C) Whether the species is monoecious or dioecious

A patient undergoing cancer treatment is prescribed a drug derived from a gymnosperm. Which plant is the source of this drug? A) Ephedra B) Gnetum C) Pacific yew D) Juniper

C) Pacific yew

A seedling fails to develop because its female gametophyte does not produce sufficient nutrients. What structure failed to support the embryo? A) Micropyle B) Seed coat C) Female gametophyte D) Integument

C) Female gametophyte

In a dry, windy region, a conifer species shows poor pollination success. What structure is most likely malfunctioning or absent? A) Sori B) Wings on seeds C) Air sacs on pollen grains D) Archegonia

C) Air sacs on pollen grains