Exam 4 Material Flashcards
Single Adults-Advantages
-time to make life decisions and develop resources
-autonomy-pursue own schedule and interests
-opportunities and privacy
Single Adults-Challenges
-forming intimate relationships with other adults
-confronting loneliness
-finding a niche-marriage oriented society
Generational Shift
-more men interested in marriage and family
-more women interested in independence
Many single adults are looking for love, not marriage. (T/F)
true
Cohabitation
living together in a sexual relationship without being married
-some see it as a precursor for marriage, others as an ongoing lifestyle
-males concerned with loss of freedom; women concerned about delays in getting married
Why would older adults cohabitate?
for companionship and/or to keep assets separate
-more positive/stable relationships than younger adults who cohabitate
-less likely to receive partner care than married older adults
Reasons for Cohabitation
-spend time together
-share expenses
-evaluate compatibility
Difficulties in Cohabitation
-disapproval
-difficulty purchasing property jointly
-difficulty during dissolution-legal rights?
Transition from Dating to Cohabitation
-more commitment
-less satisfaction
-more negative communication
-more physical aggression
What has made relationships more fragile and intense?
changing norm of male-female equality in marriage and high expectations for marriages have produced relationships that are more fragile and intense
In seeking a spouse, never-married Americans look for:
-similar ideas about having and raising children
-steady job
-at least as much education
-same racial or ethnic background
The Good Marriage
-individuals who are happily married live longer, healthier lives
-unhappy marriage can shorten a person’s life by an average of 4 years
-married individuals have the best cardiovascular profile; single men have the worst
-married men consistently report being “happier” than married women
Predictors of Success in Marriage
-establishing love maps
-nurturing fondness and admiration
-turning toward each other instead of away
-letting your partner influence you
-overcoming gridlock
-creating shared meaning
Marriages that work depend on developing a ________, ___________, and ____________
deep friendship, showing respect for each other, and embracing commitment
Premarital Education
linked to marital satisfaction and commitment, lower conflict, and lower likelihood of divorce
Social Context
contexts w/in a culture and across cultures are powerful influences on marriage
-age of marriage and whether marriages are arranged
-whether domesticity or chastity in valued
-whether religion plays a role in marital preferences
Marriage through the Lifespan-Middle Adulthood
some that were difficult during early adulthood improved in middle adulthood
-partners develop solid foundations
-fewer financial worries
-less housework and chores-children self-sufficient
-more time to spend w/ each other
-mutual activities-positive
In ______, most married individuals report being _______ w/ being married.
midlife; satisfied
Marriage through the Lifespan-Late Adulthood
-in late adulthood, married individuals are happier, less distressed, and live longer
-older adults are more satisfied w/ their marriages than young or middle-aged adults
-in late adulthood, married individuals are more likely to have to care for a sick partner w/ a limiting health condition
*stress of caring for a spouse can place demands in intimacy
Factors that Contribute to Divorce
-youthful marriages, low education levels, low income, no religious affiliation, parents who are divorced, and having a baby before marriage
-alcoholism, psychological problems, domestic violence, infidelity, and inadequate divisions of household labor
-low levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness
-high levels of neuroticism and openness to experience`
Adjustment Problems from Divorce
loneliness, diminished self-esteem, anxiety about the unknown, and difficulty forming new intimate relationships
-risk for psychological and physical difficulties
-one of more common characteristics of divorced adults is difficulty trusting someone else in a romantic relationship
________ are more likely to seek a divorce.
Women
-sense something is wrong w/ marriage
-show better emotional adjustment than men
-divorce is seen as offering a “second chance”
-typically experience more negative economic impact from divorce than men
_________, ___________, ____________ have led to an increase in remarriage among older adults.
rising divorce rates, increased longevity, and better health
Main Reasons Women Give for Divorce
-verbal, physical, or emotional abuse
-alcohol or drug abuse
-cheating
Main Reasons Men Give for Divorce
-no obvious problem, just fell out of love
-cheating
-different values or lifestyles
Alternative Lifestyles-Gay and Lesbian Couples
-in many ways, gay and lesbian relationships are similar to heterosexual relationships
*need to find balance of romantic love, affection, autonomy, equality for both partners
*many create families with children
-lesbian couples especially place a high priority on equality in their relationships
*both gay and lesbian couples more flexible in their gender roles
*partners show greater relationship quality than heterosexual couples, share more responsibilities
Misconceptions about Gay and Lesbian Couples
-in only a small percentage, one partner is masculine and the other feminine
-only a small segment of the population has a large number of sexual parents
-do prefer long-term and committed relationships, although about half of gay couples (not lesbian) have open relationships
Microsystem
setting in which the individual lives
-family, school, peers
Mesosystem
links between the microsystem
Exosystem
influences from another setting that the individual does not experience directly
-friends of family, neighbors
Macrosystem
culture in which the individual lives
Chronosystem
sociohistorical circumstances that change over time, events and transitions over life course
Reciprocal Socialization
bidirectional socialization
-children socialize parents just as parents socialize children-transactional
Family can be thought of as….
a constellation of subsystems defined in terms of generation, gender, and role
Dyadic Subsystem
involving 2 people
Polyadic Subsystem
involving more than 2 people
Advantages of Having Kids Early (20s)
-more physical energy
-fewer medical problems
-fewer expectations for children
Advantages of Having Kids Later (30s)
-more time to consider goals in life
-more mature, competent parents-more life experiences
-established careers
-higher income
Parents as Managers-Infancy and Childhood
during infancy parents manage and guide behavior
-includes corrective feedback and discipline
parents can serve as regulators of opportunities for the children’s activities
-mothers are more likely than fathers
-family-management practices related to students’ grades and self-responsibility
Parents as Managers-Adolescence
monitoring especially important as children move into adolescent years
-choice of social settings, activities, friends, academic effort
adolescents manage parent’s access to information, disclosing or concealing details of their activities
-adolescents more likely to disclose information when parents engage in positive parenting practices
Authoritarian Parenting Style
-demands blind obedience
-punitive, emotionally cold
-high expectations
-low responsiveness and high demandingness
-best for males
Authoritative Parenting Style
-clear, consistent boundaries
-open communication
-nurturing and affectionate
-high expectations
-high demandingness and high responsiveness
-best style
Uninvolved Parenting Style
-inconsistent or low expectations
-absent-little interaction
-uninterested and emotional detached
-low responsiveness and low demandingness
-worst style
Permissive Parenting Style
-low expectations, lenient
-few boundaries
-acts like child’s best friend
-avoids confrontations
-low demandingness and high responsiveness
Authoritative parenting is linked w/ _____________ across a range of ethnic groups, social strata, cultures, and family structures
child competence
-however, research w/ ethnic groups suggests that some aspects of the authoritarian style can also be associated with positive child outcomes
Caveat
2 parents may have different styles and many parents use a combination of styles
Coparenting
support that parents provide one another in jointly raising the child
-children are placed at risk for some problems like
*poor coordination between parents
*undermining of the other parent
*lack of cooperation and warmth
*disconnection by one parent
Consequences of Child Maltreatment
-poor emotional regulation
-attachment and peer relation problems
-difficulty adapting to school
-psychological problems
Parent-Adolescent Conflict
escalates during early adolescence
-conflict usually involves issues of everyday life, rarely involved major dilemmas like drugs or delinquency
-conflicts become less frequent in late adolescence
factors that contribute to rise in conflict
-biological changes of puberty
-cognitive changes-increased idealism and logical reasoning
-social changes focused on independence and identity
-maturational changes in parents
-expectations violated by parent and adolescents
Children from Divorced Families
-poorer adjustment-academic, relationship, and esteem issues
-majority do not have serious problem
-problems may stem as much from marital conflict as from divorce
Emotional Security Theory
children appraise marital conflict-sense of security and safety`
Empty Nest Syndrome
when all the children have left the parental home
-for most, increasing marital satisfaction, as the couple has more time to pursue careers, other interests, and more time for each other
Midlife Generation
middle-aged adults- the “sandwich” “squeezed” or “overload” generation
-responsibilities both to adolescent and young adult children and to aging parents
-many experience considerable stress when elderly parents become ill and die
Peer
individuals of about the same age of maturity level
-source of information and comparison beyond family
-provide feedback about one’s abilities
-
Peers can _____ parent’s value and control
undermine
Autonomy from peers predicts success in ___________ but difficulty __________
avoiding problem behaviors; establishing strong friendships
Friendship
can provide companionship, stimulation, ego support, social comparison, affection, and intimacy
Play
a pleasurable activity engaged in for its own sake
Toddlerhood-Peers and Play
around 3 yrs, same-sex playmates preferred
-continues to increase as children age
-frequency of both positive and negative peer interactions increase
Early Childhood-Peers and Play
-reciprocity become important in early elementary
-distinguish between friends and nonfriends
Play Developmentally Important
-advances in cognitive development
-symbolic and make-believe aspects of play
-satisfies exploratory drive
-supports language and communication skills`
Middle and Late Childhood-Peers and Play
-amount of time w/ peers increases
-size of peer groups increase
-less parental supervision
Social Cognition
thoughts about social matters-become increasingly important for understanding peer relations
-social knowledge is important for getting along w/ peers
-emotions play a strong role in determining whether peer relations are successful
Friendship in Childhood
-children’s friendships are characterized by similarity
-age, sex, ethnicity, and many other factors
-often similar attitudes toward school, similar educational aspirations, and closely aligned achievement orientations
-developmental advantages-when friends are socially skilled, supportive, academically oriented
-coercive, conflict-ridden, poor quality friendships-not advantageous
Popular
frequently nominated as best friend, rarely disliked by peers
-have social skills that contribute to being well-liked
-reinforcing, listeners, maintain open lines of communication, happy, control negative emotions, sho enthusiasm and concern for others, self-confident without being conceited
Average
average number of both positive and negative nominations from peers
Neglected
infrequently nominated as best friend, not disliked by peers
-low rates of interactions with peers, described as shy
Rejected
infrequently nominated as best friend; actively disliked by peers
-serious adjustment, depression, conduct problems and antisocial behaviors, aggressive role-breakers
Controversial
frequently nominated both as best friend and being disliked`
Bullying-Boys
overt, physical aggression
-more likely to be bullies than girls
Bullying-Girls
covert, relational aggression
Cyberbullying
increasing linked to stress and suicide
Adolescence-Peers and Play
peers play powerful roles in the lives of adolescents
-girls show stronger peer attachment
-more likely to be members of formal and heterogenous groups
-groups include both boys and girls and non-friends/neighborhood acquaintances
-standards of peer groups and influence of cliques and crowds increasingly important
Cliques
small groups (5-6) usually same-sex and age, often engage in similar activities
Crowds
larger groups, defined by activities, often become members based on reputation
Intimacy in Friendship
characterized by self-disclosure and sharing of private thoughts may appear
Friendship During Adolescence
teenagers-smaller number of friendships that are more intense and intimate, friends become especially important in meeting social needs in adolescence
-disclosing personal information to friends
-depending more on friends than parents to satisfy social needs
Girls friendships:__________, boys friendships ____________
intimacy; power and excitement
Leisure
pleasant times; free to pursue activities and interests of own choosing
Largest amounts of US adolescent free time is-_________________________
-screen-based activities
-hanging out
-pursuing unstructured leisure activities w/ friends
Friendships during Emerging Adulthood
-close relationships more integrated and similar in emerging adulthood than in adolescents
-number of friendship declines
-best friendships may decline in satisfaction and commitment in the first year of college
-maintaining communication w/ high school friends and keeping the same best friends lessens the decline
Friendships During Adulthood
-women more friends than men and friendships are more intimate
-females talk, while males are more likely to engage in activities with friends
-cross-gender friendships more common among adults, not as common as same-gender
-as they grow older, people choose close friends over new friends-content w/ few
Play and Leisure in Adulthood
midlife changes may produce expanded opportunities for leisure
-for some, more money, free time, and paid vacations
-opportunities to diversify interests
-those who vacation and make time for leisure experience numerous cognitive and health benefits
-adults at midlife must prepare psychologically for retirement
-participating in constructive and fulfilling leisure activities is an important part of this preparation
Constructivist Approach
-learner centered
-emphasizes individual’s active construction of knowledge and understanding
-teacher provides support
-emphasis on collaboration
Direct Instruction Approach
-teacher instruction and control, teacher expectations for the student performance
-maximize time on academic tasks
-efforts to keep negatives to a minimum
-goal-maximize learning time
-critics believe students become passive learners, doesn’t push them to think in critical and creative ways
No Child Left Behind-For
-improved student performance
-more time teaching the subjects tested
-high expectations for all students
-identification of poorly performing schools, teachers, and administrators
-improved confidence in public schools as test scores rise
No Child Left Behind-Against
-too narrow of a measure of student progress and competence
-teachers “teach to the test”-students memorize rather than think critically
-overlooks the needs of gifted students
-2009 common core standards initiative-implement more rigorous guidelines
-2015 every student succeeds (ESSA)-work in progress
Child-Centered Kindergarten
emphasizes the education of the whole child
Montessori Approach
a philosophy in which children are given freedom in choosing activities
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children and the uniqueness of each child
Many high-quality early childhood education programs encompass _________ and __________ approaches.
academic and constructivist
Project Head Start
currently the largest federally funded program for US children
-opportunities for children from low-income families
-early head start serves children form birth to 3 years
-positive effects have been seen in the head start programs
-quality of education varies across programs
-academic efforts dissipate after the support is ended; however, attitudes towards schooling remain high for those who have in the program
-academic effects sustained if the program is sustained
Top-Dog Phenomenon
move from the biggest, boldest, most powerful students in elementary school to the youngest, smallest, least powerful
Carnegie Foundation
-middle schools are massive and impersonal, using irrelevant curricula and lacking access to healthcare and counseling
-recommend a complete overhaul to smaller “communities” w/ lower student-to-counselor ratios, new curricula, and more in-school physical education
High School-Criticisms
-US high schools foster passivity
-many graduate w/ inadequate reading, writing, and math skills and enter college in need of remediation classes
-dropouts don’t have the skills needed to obtain decent jobs or be informed citizens
-transition is often difficult; and for many, high schools more about navigating social world than getting an education
High School-Positives
-extracurricular activities-higher grades, more school engagement, less likely to dropout, more likely to go to college, higher self-esteem, lower rates of depression, delinquency, and substance abuse
-dropouts have declined-males more likely than females, asian americans least likely, higher in inner cities (low SES)
College
-today’s college students experience more stress and are more depressed
-pressure to succeed, work, make lots of money
-very happy college students are highly social, extroverted, and have stronger romantic and social relationships
Adult Education
-refers to all forms of schooling/learning adults participate
-large number of adults pursue education/advanced degrees on a PT basis
Learning Disability
a difficulty in learning that involves understanding or using spoken or written language
-not primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; intellectual disability; emotional disorders; or environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage
Dyslexia
severe impairment in the ability to read and spell
Dysgraphia
involves difficulty in handwriting
Dyscalculia
difficulty in math computation
-aka developmental arithmetic disorder
ADHD
consistently show one or more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity
Autistic Disorder
severe ASD-deficiencies in social relationships; abnormalities in communication; restricted, repetitive, stereotypes patterns of behavior
Asperger Syndrome
mild ASD-relatively good verbal language skills, milder nonverbal language problems, restricted range of interests and relationships
People with ASDs benefit from a __________, ____________, and ___________.
well-structured classroom, individualized instructions, and small-group instruction
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)
spells out mandates for children with disabilities
Individualized Education Plan
a written statement of a program specifically tailored for students with disabilities
Least Restrictive Environment
a setting that is similar as possible to one in which children without a disability are educated
Inclusion
educating a child with special educational needs full-time in the regular classroom
Student’s __________ motivation increases when they have opportunities to make choices and take responsibility for learning
intrinsic
-autonomy-support parents and teachers
In elementary school through high school, intrinsic motivation _________.
declines
-6-7th: extrinsic increases-comparison
-both extrinsic and intrinsic are important
Mastery Motivation
-mastery orientation-task-oriented, concerned w/ learning strategies and process of achievement rather than ability or outcome
-mastery oriented individuals often instruct themselves to pay attention, think carefully, and remember strategies
-feel challenged and excited by difficult tasks`
Performance Orientation
-focused on winning
-happiness results from winning
Mastery and Performance goals are not ____________
mutually exclusive
-can be both mastery and performance oriented
-combo often benefits student’s success
Helpless Orientation
trapped by the experience of difficulty; attribute difficulty to lack of ability
Mindset
cognitive view that individuals develop for themselves
Fixed Mindset
born w/ qualities-cannot change
Growth Mindset
qualities can change and improve with effort
Self-Efficacy
belief one can master a situation, produce + outcomes
Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring
-best when goals are specific, proximal (short-term), and challenging
-delaying gratification is important
Grit
quality that invokes passion and persistence to achieve long-term goals
-linked to academic engagement and success
-life purpose commitment, mindfulness, and goal commitment-antecedents of grit
Career Mystique
ingrained cultural beliefs that engaging in hard work for long hours through adulthood will automatically lead to status, security, and happiness
Work-Adolescence
-80-90% of teens employed at some point-PT while attending school
-more than 20 hrs. negative
-benefits to low SES youth
*provides economic benefits
*provides adult monitoring
*may increase school engagement and decrease delinquency
Work-Emerging Adulthood
-along wit the increasing number of adults in higher education, many leave home and enter careers at later ages
-changing economic conditions have made the job market more competitive
-increased demands for highly skilled workers
-adults who don’t go to college may experience a lowered ability to get a good job
Work-Early Adulthood
-1/3 of life at work
-defines individuals in many ways
-US disappearing long-term career
-dual-career couples more common (difficulty balancing work and family)
-gender inequality continues to exist
-stressors of works and job loss
Work-Middle Adulthood
-work becomes central
*peak earning and position-good timing for financial responsibilities
-discrimination finding work
*technological advances
*sometime pre-mature retirement
Work-Late Adulthood
-percentage of older US adults still working or returning to work has been increasing
-working full-time longer to secure enough money to meet living expenses in old age
-cognitive ability is one of the best predictors of job performance for older adults
*fewer absences, fewer accidents, and increased job satisfaction compared to younger adults
-older adults who work often have better physical profiles than those who retire
-some continue to work for financial reasons, some to stay busy, some to “give back”
Retirement
older adults who best adjust to retirement
-healthy and active
-have adequate incomes
-better educated
-extended social network of friends and families
-satisfied with life before retirement
-planning and successfully carrying out the plan is important to adjustment
-special concern is that women are likely to live longer and more likely to live alone
The Death System
every culture has one and they vary across cultures
-people
-places and contexts
-times
-objects
-symbols
People
everyone is involved with death at some point, both their own death and the deaths of others
Places and Contexts
includes hospitals, funeral homes, cemeteries, hospices, battlefields, and memorials
Times
times and occasions, such as memorial day, which are set aside to honor those who have died
Objects
many objects in a culture are associated with death, including caskets and various colored objects such as clothes, armbands, and hearses
Symbols
skulls and crossbones, as well as rites in the catholic religion and various religious ceremonies, are connected to death
Advance Directive
includes a living will, states such preferences as whether life-sustained procedures should or should not be used to prolong the life of an individual when death is imminent
Euthanasia
“easy death”-the act of painlessly ending the lives of individuals who are suffering from an incurable disease or severe disability
-sometimes called “mercy killing”
Passive Euthanasia
occurs when a person is allowed to die by withholding available treatment, such as withdrawing a life-saving device
Active Euthanasia
occurs when death is deliberately induced, as when a physician or a third party ends the patient’s life by administering a lethal dose of a drug,
-ex. assisted suicide
Hospice
a program committed to making the end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible
A Developmental Perspective-Infancy
Sudden infant death syndrome
A Developmental Perspective-Childhood
accidents or illnesses
A Developmental Perspective-Adolescence
motor vehicle accidents, suicide, and homicide
A Developmental Perspective-Young and Middle-Aged Adults
accidents
A Developmental Perspective-Late Adulthood
chronic illnesses
Attitudes Toward Death-Children
figuring out what death is, how permanent, what it means
Attitudes Toward Death- 2-3 Years of Age
don’t understand that death is the end, view death as temporary or reversible/not permanent
Attitudes Toward Death-4-5 Years of Age
death is final, involves mental/physical decline
Attitudes Toward Death-Middle to Late Childhood
realistic, accurate perception of death, understand its irreversible and permanent, end of mental and physical function
Attitudes Toward Death-Middle-Aged Adults Compared to Younger and Older Adults
death is final, irreversible, the end of life, all living things die
-fear death more, fear the in-between than younger adults and older adults
-compared to young adults (young no health issues and should be fine) and older adults (near the end, it will happen)
Kubler Ross-Stages of Dying
-denial
-anger
-bargaining
-depression
-acceptance
Denial
denies that death is really going to take place
Anger
recognizes that denial can no longer be maintained, gives way to anger, resentment, rage, and envy
Bargaining
develops the hope that death can somehow be postponed or delayed
Depression
perceives the certainty of his/her death
-silent, refuse visitors, and spend much time crying
Acceptance
person develops a sense of peace, an acceptance of one’s fate, and in many cases, a desire to be left alone
-feelings and physical pain may be virtually absent
