Exam 3 Material Flashcards
Emotions
feeling, or affect, that occurs in a state of an interaction that is important to a person, especially to a well-being
-ability to control one’s emotion is key dimension of development
Emotional Regulation
effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal
Arousal involves a state of _______ or ________.
alterness; activation
Regulation of emotion gradually shifts from ______ sources to _______, ________ sources.
external; self-imitated, internal
-w/ increasing age, children improve their use of cognitive strategies for regulating emotions, modulate arousal, minimize negative emotions, and cope w/ stress
Emotion-Coaching Parents
monitor children’s emotions, view negative emotions as a teaching opportunity, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to effectively deal w/ emotions
-children are better able to self-soothe, are more effective in regulating negative affect, focus attention better, and have fewer behavioral problems
Emotion-Dismissing Parents
deny, ignore, or attempt to change negative emotions
-linked w/ poor emotional regulation
Emotional Competence
linked to management of emotion, resilience, and positive relationships
Emotion in Infancy
-primary emotions
-self-conscious emotions
-emotional expression is involved in infant’s first social relationships
-contexts can influence emotional regulation
Primary Emotions
present in humans and in other animals and in humans, they appear in the 1st 6 months
-surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
Self-Conscious Emotions
require self-awareness, consciousness, “sense of me”
-jealous, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
-emerge after 18 months (when kids find themselves), when a sense of self becomes consolidated
Emotional Expressions in Infancy
-involved in infants’ first social relationships
-cries and smiles are among babies’ first form of emotional communication
-basic cry, often prompted by hunger, anger cry and pain cry
-ainsworth and bowlby stress that you cannot respond too much to an infant’s crying in their first year of life (may be too overstimulated)
-parents can distinguish various cries of their infant better than those of others
-reflexive smile does not occur in response to external stimuli (birth to 2 months)
-social smile occurs in response to external stimuli
One of a baby’s earliest emotions is…
fear
-typically first appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 18 months
-stranger anxiety
-separation protest
-during the first year, the infant gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions-self soothing, relying on parents
Stranger Anxiety
fear and wariness of strangers
-most frequent expression of infant fear-appearing at about 6 months
Separation Protest
crying when the caregiver leaves
-typically displayed by 7-8 months-peaks at about 13-15 months
Emotions in Early Childhood
-pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that appear in the second half of the second year of life
*accompany the development of self-awareness
*during early childhood, expressions of pride and guilt become more common
*especially influenced by parent’s responses to children’s behaviors
-among the most important changes is an increased understanding of emotion
-emotional regulation is fundamental to the development of social competence
Increased Understanding of Emotion in Early Childhood
between 2-4 years old, children increase the number of terms they use to describe emotion
-also learn about causes and consequences of emotion
between 4-5 years old, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions
-begin to understand that the same event can elicit different emotions in different people; and show a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions to meet social standards
by 5 years old, most can accurately identify emotions produced by challenging circumstances and ways to cope
Emotions in Middle & Late Childhood
-learning how to cope w/ stress is an important aspect of children’s lives
*with age, children are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and how much control they have over it
-older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies
*by age 10, most children are able to use cognitive strategies to cope with stress
*children may be unable to do so in families that have not been supported and characterized by turmoil
Developmental Changes in Emotion during Middle and Late Childhood
-improved emotional understanding
-marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
-use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
-increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
-development of a capacity for genuine empathy
Emotional Development-Adolescence
-adolescents are not constantly in a state of emotional turmoil, or “storm of stress”
-emotional highs and lows do increase during early adolescence
*intensity out of proportion to the events that elicit them
-depression is more common in adolescence than in childhood, and it is increasing among adolescents
*girls especially vulnerable
Emotional Development-Adult and Aging
developmental changes continue through adult years
-effort to create emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable lifestyles
-women and men differ in the ways they experience and respond to stressors
*women are more vulnerable to social stressors and more likely to become depressed
*men are more likely to respond to stress in a fight-or-flight manner
i. become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol
*women are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern
i. seeking social alliances with others, especially friends
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
suggests older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being
Motivation for Knowledge
related goals decline (socioemotional selectivity theory)
Motivation for Emotion
related goals increases (socioemotional selectivity theory)
Mellowing
-older adults-more positive and less negative emotions than younger adults
-react less strongly to negative circumstances
-better at ignoring irrelevant negative emotions
-remember more positive than negative information
Temperament
individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
Easy Child
generally positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, adapts easily to new experiences (40%)
Difficult child
reacts negatively and cries frequently, irregular daily routines, slow to accept change (10%)
Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood (15%)
____% of children do not fit easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.
35
Babies are ________ oriented
socially
Face-to-Face Play
often begins to characterize caregiver-infant interactions at 2-3 months, including vocalization, touch, and gestures
Infants learn about the social world through the ability to _____, ______, ________.
crawl, walk, and run
Awareness of _______ and ___________ behavior initially emerges near the end of the 1st year
intentional and goal-directed
A key development of attachment and love in infancy is ____________________.
cooperating w/ others
Social Referencing
“reading” emotional cues in others to determine how to act
-attachment and love in infancy
Attachment
a close emotional bond between 2 people
Freud Idea of Attachment
infants attach to a person or object that provides oral satisfaction
Harlow Attachment
contact comfort is a crucial element in developing attachment
-rhesus monkey study
-failure to thrive->could die without comfort and attachment
Erikson Attachment
the trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the role of physical comfort and sensitive care
Bowlby Attachment
infants develop an internal working model of attachment-of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of care
-influence subsequent responses to others
Strange Situation
-observational measure of infant attachment
-created by mary ainsworth, the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions w/ the caregiver and an adult stranger
Securely Attached
caregiver as a secure base of which to explore
-parenting: sensitive and responsive
Insecure Avoidant
show insecurity by avoiding caregiver (30%)
Insecure Resistant
cling to caregiver, then resist closeness
-also known as insecure ambivalent
-parenting: non-responsive, unavailable, rejecting
Insecure Disorganized
disorganized and disoriented, perhaps fearful
-parenting: neglect or abuse
Prefrontal Cortex Role in Attachment
likely important role in maternal attachment behavior
-subcortical regions of the amygdala and hypothalamus
Oxytocin and Dopamine
hormone oxytocin and neurotransmitter dopamine are important to the formation of the mother-infant bond
-oxytocin is released in the mother during breastfeeding and by contact and warmth; can also be released in the father
-mother’s experience of pleasure and reward influences the brain’s dopamine circuits when caring for an infant
There is an increasing number of US fathers that stay home full-time w/ their children. (T/F)
True
-many have career focused wives that provide most of the family’s income
-most report being as satisfied with their marriage as traditional parents
-may miss daily life in the workplace and feel ostracized when taking children to the playground or when excluded from parent groups
Fathers are able to care for infants as _______ and ________ as mothers.
sensitively and responsively
Differences between Father and Mother Interactions
-maternal interactions w/ infants tend to center on childcare activities
-paternal interactions are more likely to include play
-mothers engage in play w/ their children 3x as often as fathers do
Increase in the number of childcare arrangements is linked to __________________
an increase in behavioral problems and decrease in prosocial behavior
Majority of childcare arrangements are of high-quality (T/F)
False, many are low-quality
Higher quality childcare is linked to _______________.
higher cognitive academic achievement
Many adolescents have a ___________ attachment style, but that attachment stability ________ in adulthood.
fairly stable; increases
____________ and ____________ are likely to undermine attachment stability.
family conflict and parental separation or divorce
More secure attachments to parents is associated w/ fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents. (T/F)
True
Most consistent outcomes of secure attachment for adolescents include ____________ and __________
positive peer relations and emotional regulation
3 Stages of Romantic Involvement
-entry into romantic attractions at about 11-13 yrs,
-exploring romantic relationships 14-16 yrs
-consolidating dyadic romantic bonds 17-19 yrs.
-may also be early (15-35%) and late (10-15%) bloomers
-religious and cultural values may also affect standards and expectations
Entry into Romantic Attractions
-11-13 yrs
-intensely interested in romance; develop a crush
-dating takes place in group settings
Exploring Romantic Relationships
-14-16 yrs
-casual dating and group dating
Consolidating Dyadic Romantic Bonds
-17-19 yrs.
-more serious romantic relationships develop
-strong emotional bonds resemble adult relationships
Adult Attachment Styles
-secure attachment
-avoidant attachment
-anxious attachment
Secure Attachment-Adulthood
a positive view of relationship; easy to get close to others; not overly concerned w/ or stressed out about romantic relationships
Avoidant Attachment Style-Adulthood
hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships; and once in a relationship, distance themselves from partner
Anxious Attachment Style-Adulthood
demand closeness; less trusting; more emotional, jealous, possessive
More adults see themselves as securely attached and prefer having a securely attached partner (T/F)
True
Romantic Love
passionate love or eros-strong components of sexuality and infatuation
-often predominates in the early part of a love relationship
-today, romantic attraction takes place not only in person but also all over internet
-romantic relationships change in emerging adulthood
-culture has a strong influence
How do Romantic Relationships Change in Emerging Adulthood?
-long-term relationships in adolescents are both supportive and turbulent
-in emerging adulthood, they provide more support and decreased levels of negative interactions, control, and jealousy
Culture’s Influence on Romantic Relationships
-in collectivist cultures, intimacy is more diffused in love b/c of strong group emphasis
-in individualistic countries, intimacy is more often intensified
-individual countries vary greatly in romance-related customs
Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love
-passion
-intimacy
-commitment
-varying combinations create 3 qualitatively different types of love: affectionate, fatuous, and consummate
Passion
physical and sexual attraction
Intimacy
emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing
Commitment-Love
cognitive appraisal of the relationship and an intent to maintain the relationship in the face of problems
Affectionate Love
intimacy and commitment are present
-also called compassionate love, involves a desire to have the other person near and a deep, caring affection for the person
Fatuous Love
passion and commitment are present
Consummate Love
passion, intimacy, and commitment are all present
Infatuation Love
only passion present
There is a growing belief that as love matures, _____________
passion gives way to affection
_________ and __________ are more important in early adulthood, and feelings of emotional security and loyalty become more important in later-life love relationships.
Communication and sexual intimacy
Empty Love
only commitment
Understanding of the Self and Others-Infancy
-rudimentary form of self-recognition appears as early as 3 months
-mirror technique is one of the strategies for testing infants’ visual self-recognition
*with rouge on the nose, increased nose touching means that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror
*signs of self-recognition appear at 15-18 months
*infants develop a conscious awareness of their bodies by their second year
-interactions support development of the self
Understanding of Self-Early Childhood
-self-descriptions
-concrete-physical-active
-unrealistically positive- “i’m never scared”
-individual variations in descriptions
Understanding of Others-Early Childhood
-theory of mind
-as young as 13 months old may take another’s perspective when predicting actions
-4-5 years, begin describing themselves and perceiving others w/ psychological traits
-gradually understand that people do not always give accurate reports of their beliefs
-social interactions and relationships contribute significantly to development
-debate continues over whether they are socially sensitive or basically egocentric
Understanding of Self-Middle/Late Childhood
-more complex
-increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits
-begin to include social references in their self-descriptions
-make increasing references to social comparison
-begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves
-self-evaluations become more realistic
Perspective Taking-Middle/Late Adulthood
the ability to assume another’s perspective and understanding his/her thoughts and feelings
-thought especially important-develop prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors
-executive functions are at work, including cognitive inhibitions and cognitive flexibility
Understanding of Self-Adolescence
-understanding
-begin thinking in more abstract and idealistic ways
-increasingly likely to be self-conscious
-become aware of potential contradictions between their differentiated selves
-self-understanding fluctuates across situations and time
-sense of real and ideal selves develops further
-self-understanding becomes more integrative
-possible selves-what adolescents hope to be and what they dread becoming
Understanding of Others-Adolescence
-perceiving others’ traits, understanding multiple perspectives, and monitoring social world
-understand others are complex and have public and private faces
-cognitive monitoring-important activity in metacognition helpful in social situations
Understanding Self and Others-Adulthood
-self awareness
-possible selves-20s many possible selves
*with age-describe fewer possible selves-more realistic portrayals
*middle age-possible selves-areas in which they have already performed
*many individuals continue to revise and adapt to their possible selves
Life Review
looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating, interpreting, and reinterpreting
-reminiscence therapy-discussion of past activities and experiences
Self-Esteem
global evaluations of the self (self worth or self-image)
Self-Concept
domain-specific evaluations of self (ex. academic, athletic)
Foundations of self-esteem and self-concept lay in the _________________ during infancy and early childhood
quality of parent-child interactions
Low self-esteem has negative consequences in many areas of life (T/F)
true
-implicated in overweight, obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
-for youths with low self-esteem, low life satisfaction at 30
High self-esteem _______ lead directly to good academic performance and correlations w/ adult job performance vary greatly
does not
Self-esteem is strongly related to __________
happiness
Self-esteem is related to _______________ (females)
perceived physical appearance
In most age periods, self-esteem of males is ________ than that of females
higher
Most adolescents have a _________ self-image
positive
-gender differences may emerge
-1st grade no difference, but by middle school, girls’ self-esteem is slightly lower
Inflated Praise
low self-esteem to avoid learning from important challenges
Many older adults do not interpret “_______” as negatively-do not become emotionally upset.
losses
-older adults’ self-esteem benefits when they know they are accepted by others
_______________________ may explain the decline in self-esteem for some older adults
deteriorating physical health and negative societal attitudes
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
-erikson
-adolescent stage
Psychosocial Moratorium
gap between childhood security and adult autonomy
-adolescents who do not successfully resolve this crisis can suffer from identity confusion
Identity Development is a ________ process-more gradual/less crisis than Erikson suggested
lengthy
-individuals with healthy identities are flexible and adaptive
At a minimum, identity involves ___________,________, and ________.
-a commitment to a vocational direction
-an ideological stance
-sexual orientation
Narrative Approach
asking people to tell and evaluate their life stories
Narrative Identities
stories people tell and construct to define who they are
Crisis
-marcia
-individual explores alternative
Commitment
personal investment
Identity Diffusion
no crisis or commitments
Identity Foreclosure
commitment, but no crisis
Identity Moratorium
in the midst of crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined
Identity Achievement
undergone a crisis and made a commitment
Trait Theories
state that personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses
Big Five Factors of Personality
-openness to experience
-conscientiousness
-extraversion
-agreeableness
-neuroticism
Optimism
having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems
Trait Situation Interaction
context or environment is also important to personality
Ongoing study of the big five personality traits has found a great deal of _________ across the adult years
stability
Emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness are __________ in early adulthood, ______ at 40-60 years, and _______ in late adulthood
lower; peak; decrease
Conscientiousness shows a continuous ______ from early to late adulthood
increase
Most research suggests the greatest change in personality occurs in ________.
early adulthood
Personality traits continue to change through the adult years, even in late adulthood. (T/F)
true
-most change occurs during early adulthood
-more stability is show in personality traits after midlife
Cumulative Personality Model
with time and age, people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote increased stability in personality
-personality changes that occur across adulthood move in a positive direction, toward social maturity.
-“more confident, warm, responsible, calm”
Gender
characteristics related to the femininity or masculinity based on social and cultural norms
Gender Identity
a sense of one’s own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being a boy/man, girl/woman, or another gender
Gender Roles
a set of expectations that prescribe how girls/women or boys/men should think, act, feel
Gender-Typing
acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Both Estrogens and Androgens are present in males and females, in different concentration. (T/F)
true
Estrogens
sex hormones that influence the female physical sex characteristics and help to regulate the menstrual cycle
Androgens
sex hormones that promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics->testosterone
Male and Female Embryos
initially look alike-diverge as a result of hormonal secretions
-in males, a gene on Y directs formation of testes, which secrete testosterone
Social Role Theory
psychological gender differences result from the contrasting social roles of women and men
-most world cultures-women have less power/status and control fewer resources
-social hierarchy and division of labor-important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness and nurturing
Psychoanalytic Theory-Freud’s View
-phallic stage (3rd stage)-3-6 yrs.-sexual attraction to opposite sex parent
-at end-5-6 yrs.-children renounce these feelings and identify w/ the same-sex parent
-however, children adopt same-sex roles prior to 5-6 years even if are raised w/ same-sex parent
Social Cognitive Theory
gender development occurs through observations and imitations as well as rewards and punishments
Parents Social Influences
-action and example
-mothers and fathers often interact differently w/ children and adolescents
-parents interact differently w/ sons and daughters
*in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible
*fathers pay more attention, engage more, and promote intellectual development-sons
-mothers are more involved than fathers
-when they have sons, fathers spend more time in parenting
Other Adult Social Influences
neighborhood and media
Peer Social Influences
-w/age peers increasingly important
-girls acting like boys is generally more accepted than boys acting like girls (peers harder on boys than girls)
-4-12+, children spend most of their play time w/ others of their own sex
*engage in different play behaviors and activities
Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Boys
-compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly-valued and reinforced
-majority of teachers are female, especially at the elementary level
-boys are more likely to have a learning disability or ADHD and drop out
-boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers
-boys’ behaviors is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic
Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Girls
-girls’ compliant and quiet-cost of diminished assertiveness
-teachers-more time watching and interacting w/ boys-w/ help and instruction
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal self-esteem, but by middle school, girls’ is lower
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal math and science, but by middle school, gap begins
*girls performing lower, in same-sex schools there are no gaps, social influence of self-efficacy
-pros and cons for same-sex education-jury still out
Cognitive Influences on Gender
according to social cognitive theory, observation, imitation, rewards, and punishments are the mechanisms of gender development
Gender Schema Theory
gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
*gender schemas organize the world in terms of male and female
*children are motivated to act in ways that conform to gender schemas
Gender Constancy
-kohlberg
-gender labeling
-gender stability
-gender consistency
Gender Labeling
correctly labeling the sex (do not understand gender stability over time yet)
-by 2-3 years, toddlers are able to label others; by 2.5-3 yrs able to label the self
Gender Stability
realizing that gender is stable over time
-by 5 yrs, realize that boys grow up to be dad and girls grow up to be moms
Gender Consistency
understanding gender doesn’t change w/ change in appearance
-by 7 yrs, realize that gender is permanent across situations and over time
Gender Stereotypes
general impressions and beliefs about girls/women, boys/men
-boys gender stereotypes more rigid than girls
-assigned traits are different and unequal in terms of social status and powers
-male/masculine traits are instrumental-being independent, aggressive, power-oriented
-female/feminine traits are expressive-being warm and sensitive
-masculinity may be the new norm
Gender Stereotypes Developmentally
-present 2 yrs-increase by 4 yrs
-middle childhood-adolescence
*appearance stereotypes-more prevalent for girls
*activity and trait stereotypes-more prevalent for boys
*occupation, sports, and school tasks
-by late adolescence, gender attitudes become more flexible
Gender Differences
averages-consider overlap-due to biology, sociocultural or both?
Controversy in Gender Stereotypes
may be greatly exaggerated
-largest differences appear to be in motor skills, sexuality, and physical aggression
-gender differences in the brain have not been directly linked to psychological differences
-cognitive differences may have been exaggerated and/or may reflect noncognitive factors
gender behavior occurs in contexts-helping behaviors; display of emotions
cultural backgrounds influence gender socialization
-traditional gender roles continue to guide behaviors
-many western cultures are today more flexible about gender behavior and allow more diversity
Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Females
aggression
-some amt or more-verbal aggression
-relational aggression-middle/late childhood
emotional
-express emotions more openly
-during adolescence-more self-disclosure
-people-oriented
Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Males
aggression
-more physically aggressive-across cultures; appears early; pronounced during provocation
emotional
-experience and express more anger
-value self-assertion
-less self-regulation
-thing-oriented
Androgyny
positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person
Functional Flexibility
one’s gender identity being positively linked to adjustment, and competence, involving flexibility adopting to specific situations
Transgender
adopting a gender identity that differs from assigned at birth
-some argue trans is a better umbrella term for a variety of gender identities and expressions others prefer gender diverse
Cisgender
those whose gender identity and expression corresponds to the gender identity assigned at birth
Gender-Intensification Hypothesis
psychological and behavior differences increase in early adolescence
-increased pressure to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles
-adopting a strong masculine role-associated w/ problem behaviors
-extreme gender-typed for either gender-to low school engagement and attachment
Rapport Talk
conversation; a way of establishing connections and relationships
-women enjoy this
Report Talk
designed to give information
-males enjoy this and display lack of interest in rapport talk
Gender Roles among Older Adults
-femininity is increased and masculinity is decreased
-older men become more nurturant; while women do not necessarily become more masculine
-as they age, women face both ageism and sexism
-developing countries-poverty rate for older adult females 2x that of older adult males
-some ethnic minority groups define an older woman’s role as unimportant, whereas in others, older women’s social status improved with age
Moral Development
changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong
Intrapersonal
a person’s activities when not engaged in social interaction
Interpersonal
social interactions and arbitrates conflict
Heteronomous Morality
piaget’s stages of moral thought (cognitive)
-4-7 yrs-justice and rules as unchangeable
-judge the goodness-by considering its consequences, not intentions
-imminent justice-if a rule is broken, immediate punishment; violation is automatically connected to its punishment, and if something unfortunate happened, the person must have transgressed (done something wrong
The transition from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality during piaget’s stages of moral though occurs at what age?
7-10 years
Autonomous Morality
-10+ years-rules and laws created by people
-judge the goodness-by considering both intentions and consequences
-punishment occurs only if someone witnesses wrongdoing, and punishment is not inevitable
Piaget said that __________ are critical for moral development
peer relations
Preconventional Stage of Moral Thought (Kohlberg)
up to 9 yrs, good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments
Conventional Stage of Moral Thought
early adolescence, certain standards are set by others (community)
Postconventional Stage of Moral Though
early adulthood, alternative moral courses, explore options, personal moral code
Other Points of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Thought
-development fostered by opportunities for perspective taking and experience conflict
-interviews-children are presented stories-characters face moral dilemma-heinz’s dilemma
-interaction is a critical part that challenges children to change their moral reasoning
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
-too much emphasis on thought and not on behaviors
-kohlberg suggests moral thinking is deliberative, whereas Haidt suggests it is more often an intuitive reaction
-kohlberg suggest emotions have negative effects on moral reasoning, but evidence indicates emotions play an important role
-some critics claim the theory is culturally biased
-kohlberg places too much emphasis on peer relations-not enough on family
-gilligan argued based in male norms that put abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
*males-justice orientation
*females-care perspectives
Social Cognitive Theory of Morality
emphasizes a distinction between moral competence and moral performance
Moral Competencies
what individuals are capable of, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors
Moral Performance
actual behavior, determined by motivation and rewards and incentives
Bandura
-moral development-combination of social and cognitive factors-self-control
____________, ___________, ___________ affect how individuals learn moral behaviors.
reinforcement, punishment, and imitation
-effectiveness of reward and punishment depends on consistency and timing-closely to behavior (swift and intensive)
-effectiveness of modeling-characteristics pf the model and cognitive skills of the observer
Behavior is situationally _________-moral behaviors differ based in situation
dependent
Resistance to _______ and _______ are keys
temptation and self-control
Freud (Feelings and Emotions-Morality)
guilt and desire to avoid feeling guilty-foundations of moral behaviors
Superego
the moral branch of personality-2 main components
-ego ideal
-conscience
Ego Ideal
rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts in accordance to ideal standards approved by the parents
Conscience
punishes the child for behaviors disapproved of by the parents, making the child feel guilty
Empathy
an affective response to another’s feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other person’s feelings
-emotional state with a cognitive component-the ability of perspective-taking, discerning the inner psychological states of others
In early childhood, children respond ______ to others’ distress.
appropriately
Damon’s Developmental Stages In Empathy-Early Infancy
characterized by global empathy, the young infant’s empathic response does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others
DDSE-1-2 yrs of Age
undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another’s distress grow into more genuine feelings of concern, but infants cannot translate realization of others’ unhappy feelings into effective action
DDSE-Early Childhood
children become aware that every person’s perspective is unique and that some else may have a different reaction to a situation, this awareness allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person’s distress
DDSE-10-12 years
children develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live in unfortunate situations. in adolescents, this newfound sensitivity may give a humanitarian flavor to the individual’s idealogical and political views
Moral Identity
thoughts, behaviors, and feelings can all be involved in an individual’s moral personality
-the aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments central to their love
*behavior violating this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk
Moral Character
strength of convictions, persisting, overcoming distractions and obstacles
Moral Motivation
prioritizing moral values over other personal values
Moral Virtues Emphasized
-honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness
-care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness
-dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness
Moral Exemplars
people who have lived exemplary moral lives
-moral personality, identity, character, and virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment
-ex. gandhi and mother theresa
