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Psychology of Human Development > Exam 3 Material > Flashcards

Exam 3 Material Flashcards

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1
Q

Emotions

A

feeling, or affect, that occurs in a state of an interaction that is important to a person, especially to a well-being
-ability to control one’s emotion is key dimension of development

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2
Q

Emotional Regulation

A

effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal

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3
Q

Arousal involves a state of _______ or ________.

A

alterness; activation

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4
Q

Regulation of emotion gradually shifts from ______ sources to _______, ________ sources.

A

external; self-imitated, internal
-w/ increasing age, children improve their use of cognitive strategies for regulating emotions, modulate arousal, minimize negative emotions, and cope w/ stress

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5
Q

Emotion-Coaching Parents

A

monitor children’s emotions, view negative emotions as a teaching opportunity, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to effectively deal w/ emotions
-children are better able to self-soothe, are more effective in regulating negative affect, focus attention better, and have fewer behavioral problems

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6
Q

Emotion-Dismissing Parents

A

deny, ignore, or attempt to change negative emotions
-linked w/ poor emotional regulation

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7
Q

Emotional Competence

A

linked to management of emotion, resilience, and positive relationships

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8
Q

Emotion in Infancy

A

-primary emotions
-self-conscious emotions
-emotional expression is involved in infant’s first social relationships
-contexts can influence emotional regulation

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9
Q

Primary Emotions

A

present in humans and in other animals and in humans, they appear in the 1st 6 months
-surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust

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10
Q

Self-Conscious Emotions

A

require self-awareness, consciousness, “sense of me”
-jealous, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
-emerge after 18 months (when kids find themselves), when a sense of self becomes consolidated

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11
Q

Emotional Expressions in Infancy

A

-involved in infants’ first social relationships
-cries and smiles are among babies’ first form of emotional communication
-basic cry, often prompted by hunger, anger cry and pain cry
-ainsworth and bowlby stress that you cannot respond too much to an infant’s crying in their first year of life (may be too overstimulated)
-parents can distinguish various cries of their infant better than those of others
-reflexive smile does not occur in response to external stimuli (birth to 2 months)
-social smile occurs in response to external stimuli

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12
Q

One of a baby’s earliest emotions is…

A

fear
-typically first appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 18 months
-stranger anxiety
-separation protest
-during the first year, the infant gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions-self soothing, relying on parents

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13
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A

fear and wariness of strangers
-most frequent expression of infant fear-appearing at about 6 months

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14
Q

Separation Protest

A

crying when the caregiver leaves
-typically displayed by 7-8 months-peaks at about 13-15 months

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15
Q

Emotions in Early Childhood

A

-pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that appear in the second half of the second year of life
*accompany the development of self-awareness
*during early childhood, expressions of pride and guilt become more common
*especially influenced by parent’s responses to children’s behaviors
-among the most important changes is an increased understanding of emotion
-emotional regulation is fundamental to the development of social competence

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16
Q

Increased Understanding of Emotion in Early Childhood

A

between 2-4 years old, children increase the number of terms they use to describe emotion
-also learn about causes and consequences of emotion

between 4-5 years old, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions
-begin to understand that the same event can elicit different emotions in different people; and show a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions to meet social standards

by 5 years old, most can accurately identify emotions produced by challenging circumstances and ways to cope

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17
Q

Emotions in Middle & Late Childhood

A

-learning how to cope w/ stress is an important aspect of children’s lives
*with age, children are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and how much control they have over it
-older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies
*by age 10, most children are able to use cognitive strategies to cope with stress
*children may be unable to do so in families that have not been supported and characterized by turmoil

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18
Q

Developmental Changes in Emotion during Middle and Late Childhood

A

-improved emotional understanding
-marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
-use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
-increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
-development of a capacity for genuine empathy

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19
Q

Emotional Development-Adolescence

A

-adolescents are not constantly in a state of emotional turmoil, or “storm of stress”
-emotional highs and lows do increase during early adolescence
*intensity out of proportion to the events that elicit them
-depression is more common in adolescence than in childhood, and it is increasing among adolescents
*girls especially vulnerable

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20
Q

Emotional Development-Adult and Aging

A

developmental changes continue through adult years
-effort to create emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable lifestyles
-women and men differ in the ways they experience and respond to stressors
*women are more vulnerable to social stressors and more likely to become depressed
*men are more likely to respond to stress in a fight-or-flight manner
i. become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol
*women are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern
i. seeking social alliances with others, especially friends

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21
Q

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A

suggests older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being

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22
Q

Motivation for Knowledge

A

related goals decline (socioemotional selectivity theory)

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23
Q

Motivation for Emotion

A

related goals increases (socioemotional selectivity theory)

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24
Q

Mellowing

A

-older adults-more positive and less negative emotions than younger adults
-react less strongly to negative circumstances
-better at ignoring irrelevant negative emotions
-remember more positive than negative information

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25
Q

Temperament

A

individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding

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26
Q

Easy Child

A

generally positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, adapts easily to new experiences (40%)

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27
Q

Difficult child

A

reacts negatively and cries frequently, irregular daily routines, slow to accept change (10%)

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28
Q

Slow-to-Warm-Up Child

A

low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood (15%)

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29
Q

____% of children do not fit easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.

A

35

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30
Q

Babies are ________ oriented

A

socially

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31
Q

Face-to-Face Play

A

often begins to characterize caregiver-infant interactions at 2-3 months, including vocalization, touch, and gestures

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32
Q

Infants learn about the social world through the ability to _____, ______, ________.

A

crawl, walk, and run

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33
Q

Awareness of _______ and ___________ behavior initially emerges near the end of the 1st year

A

intentional and goal-directed

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34
Q

A key development of attachment and love in infancy is ____________________.

A

cooperating w/ others

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35
Q

Social Referencing

A

“reading” emotional cues in others to determine how to act
-attachment and love in infancy

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36
Q

Attachment

A

a close emotional bond between 2 people

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37
Q

Freud Idea of Attachment

A

infants attach to a person or object that provides oral satisfaction

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38
Q

Harlow Attachment

A

contact comfort is a crucial element in developing attachment
-rhesus monkey study
-failure to thrive->could die without comfort and attachment

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39
Q

Erikson Attachment

A

the trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the role of physical comfort and sensitive care

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40
Q

Bowlby Attachment

A

infants develop an internal working model of attachment-of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of care
-influence subsequent responses to others

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41
Q

Strange Situation

A

-observational measure of infant attachment
-created by mary ainsworth, the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions w/ the caregiver and an adult stranger

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42
Q

Securely Attached

A

caregiver as a secure base of which to explore
-parenting: sensitive and responsive

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43
Q

Insecure Avoidant

A

show insecurity by avoiding caregiver (30%)

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44
Q

Insecure Resistant

A

cling to caregiver, then resist closeness
-also known as insecure ambivalent
-parenting: non-responsive, unavailable, rejecting

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45
Q

Insecure Disorganized

A

disorganized and disoriented, perhaps fearful
-parenting: neglect or abuse

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46
Q

Prefrontal Cortex Role in Attachment

A

likely important role in maternal attachment behavior
-subcortical regions of the amygdala and hypothalamus

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47
Q

Oxytocin and Dopamine

A

hormone oxytocin and neurotransmitter dopamine are important to the formation of the mother-infant bond
-oxytocin is released in the mother during breastfeeding and by contact and warmth; can also be released in the father
-mother’s experience of pleasure and reward influences the brain’s dopamine circuits when caring for an infant

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48
Q

There is an increasing number of US fathers that stay home full-time w/ their children. (T/F)

A

True
-many have career focused wives that provide most of the family’s income
-most report being as satisfied with their marriage as traditional parents
-may miss daily life in the workplace and feel ostracized when taking children to the playground or when excluded from parent groups

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49
Q

Fathers are able to care for infants as _______ and ________ as mothers.

A

sensitively and responsively

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50
Q

Differences between Father and Mother Interactions

A

-maternal interactions w/ infants tend to center on childcare activities
-paternal interactions are more likely to include play
-mothers engage in play w/ their children 3x as often as fathers do

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51
Q

Increase in the number of childcare arrangements is linked to __________________

A

an increase in behavioral problems and decrease in prosocial behavior

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52
Q

Majority of childcare arrangements are of high-quality (T/F)

A

False, many are low-quality

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53
Q

Higher quality childcare is linked to _______________.

A

higher cognitive academic achievement

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54
Q

Many adolescents have a ___________ attachment style, but that attachment stability ________ in adulthood.

A

fairly stable; increases

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55
Q

____________ and ____________ are likely to undermine attachment stability.

A

family conflict and parental separation or divorce

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56
Q

More secure attachments to parents is associated w/ fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents. (T/F)

A

True

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57
Q

Most consistent outcomes of secure attachment for adolescents include ____________ and __________

A

positive peer relations and emotional regulation

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58
Q

3 Stages of Romantic Involvement

A

-entry into romantic attractions at about 11-13 yrs,
-exploring romantic relationships 14-16 yrs
-consolidating dyadic romantic bonds 17-19 yrs.
-may also be early (15-35%) and late (10-15%) bloomers
-religious and cultural values may also affect standards and expectations

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59
Q

Entry into Romantic Attractions

A

-11-13 yrs
-intensely interested in romance; develop a crush
-dating takes place in group settings

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60
Q

Exploring Romantic Relationships

A

-14-16 yrs
-casual dating and group dating

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61
Q

Consolidating Dyadic Romantic Bonds

A

-17-19 yrs.
-more serious romantic relationships develop
-strong emotional bonds resemble adult relationships

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62
Q

Adult Attachment Styles

A

-secure attachment
-avoidant attachment
-anxious attachment

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63
Q

Secure Attachment-Adulthood

A

a positive view of relationship; easy to get close to others; not overly concerned w/ or stressed out about romantic relationships

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64
Q

Avoidant Attachment Style-Adulthood

A

hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships; and once in a relationship, distance themselves from partner

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64
Q

Anxious Attachment Style-Adulthood

A

demand closeness; less trusting; more emotional, jealous, possessive

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65
Q

More adults see themselves as securely attached and prefer having a securely attached partner (T/F)

A

True

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66
Q

Romantic Love

A

passionate love or eros-strong components of sexuality and infatuation
-often predominates in the early part of a love relationship
-today, romantic attraction takes place not only in person but also all over internet
-romantic relationships change in emerging adulthood
-culture has a strong influence

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67
Q

How do Romantic Relationships Change in Emerging Adulthood?

A

-long-term relationships in adolescents are both supportive and turbulent
-in emerging adulthood, they provide more support and decreased levels of negative interactions, control, and jealousy

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68
Q

Culture’s Influence on Romantic Relationships

A

-in collectivist cultures, intimacy is more diffused in love b/c of strong group emphasis
-in individualistic countries, intimacy is more often intensified
-individual countries vary greatly in romance-related customs

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69
Q

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

A

-passion
-intimacy
-commitment
-varying combinations create 3 qualitatively different types of love: affectionate, fatuous, and consummate

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70
Q

Passion

A

physical and sexual attraction

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71
Q

Intimacy

A

emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing

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72
Q

Commitment-Love

A

cognitive appraisal of the relationship and an intent to maintain the relationship in the face of problems

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73
Q

Affectionate Love

A

intimacy and commitment are present
-also called compassionate love, involves a desire to have the other person near and a deep, caring affection for the person

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74
Q

Fatuous Love

A

passion and commitment are present

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75
Q

Consummate Love

A

passion, intimacy, and commitment are all present

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76
Q

Infatuation Love

A

only passion present

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77
Q

There is a growing belief that as love matures, _____________

A

passion gives way to affection

78
Q

_________ and __________ are more important in early adulthood, and feelings of emotional security and loyalty become more important in later-life love relationships.

A

Communication and sexual intimacy

79
Q

Empty Love

A

only commitment

80
Q

Understanding of the Self and Others-Infancy

A

-rudimentary form of self-recognition appears as early as 3 months
-mirror technique is one of the strategies for testing infants’ visual self-recognition
*with rouge on the nose, increased nose touching means that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror
*signs of self-recognition appear at 15-18 months
*infants develop a conscious awareness of their bodies by their second year
-interactions support development of the self

81
Q

Understanding of Self-Early Childhood

A

-self-descriptions
-concrete-physical-active
-unrealistically positive- “i’m never scared”
-individual variations in descriptions

82
Q

Understanding of Others-Early Childhood

A

-theory of mind
-as young as 13 months old may take another’s perspective when predicting actions
-4-5 years, begin describing themselves and perceiving others w/ psychological traits
-gradually understand that people do not always give accurate reports of their beliefs
-social interactions and relationships contribute significantly to development
-debate continues over whether they are socially sensitive or basically egocentric

83
Q

Understanding of Self-Middle/Late Childhood

A

-more complex
-increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits
-begin to include social references in their self-descriptions
-make increasing references to social comparison
-begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves
-self-evaluations become more realistic

84
Q

Perspective Taking-Middle/Late Adulthood

A

the ability to assume another’s perspective and understanding his/her thoughts and feelings
-thought especially important-develop prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors
-executive functions are at work, including cognitive inhibitions and cognitive flexibility

85
Q

Understanding of Self-Adolescence

A

-understanding
-begin thinking in more abstract and idealistic ways
-increasingly likely to be self-conscious
-become aware of potential contradictions between their differentiated selves
-self-understanding fluctuates across situations and time
-sense of real and ideal selves develops further
-self-understanding becomes more integrative
-possible selves-what adolescents hope to be and what they dread becoming

86
Q

Understanding of Others-Adolescence

A

-perceiving others’ traits, understanding multiple perspectives, and monitoring social world
-understand others are complex and have public and private faces
-cognitive monitoring-important activity in metacognition helpful in social situations

87
Q

Understanding Self and Others-Adulthood

A

-self awareness
-possible selves-20s many possible selves
*with age-describe fewer possible selves-more realistic portrayals
*middle age-possible selves-areas in which they have already performed
*many individuals continue to revise and adapt to their possible selves

88
Q

Life Review

A

looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating, interpreting, and reinterpreting
-reminiscence therapy-discussion of past activities and experiences

89
Q

Self-Esteem

A

global evaluations of the self (self worth or self-image)

90
Q

Self-Concept

A

domain-specific evaluations of self (ex. academic, athletic)

91
Q

Foundations of self-esteem and self-concept lay in the _________________ during infancy and early childhood

A

quality of parent-child interactions

92
Q

Low self-esteem has negative consequences in many areas of life (T/F)

A

true
-implicated in overweight, obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
-for youths with low self-esteem, low life satisfaction at 30

93
Q

High self-esteem _______ lead directly to good academic performance and correlations w/ adult job performance vary greatly

A

does not

94
Q

Self-esteem is strongly related to __________

A

happiness

95
Q

Self-esteem is related to _______________ (females)

A

perceived physical appearance

96
Q

In most age periods, self-esteem of males is ________ than that of females

A

higher

97
Q

Most adolescents have a _________ self-image

A

positive
-gender differences may emerge
-1st grade no difference, but by middle school, girls’ self-esteem is slightly lower

98
Q

Inflated Praise

A

low self-esteem to avoid learning from important challenges

99
Q

Many older adults do not interpret “_______” as negatively-do not become emotionally upset.

A

losses
-older adults’ self-esteem benefits when they know they are accepted by others

100
Q

_______________________ may explain the decline in self-esteem for some older adults

A

deteriorating physical health and negative societal attitudes

101
Q

Identity vs. Identity Confusion

A

-erikson
-adolescent stage

102
Q

Psychosocial Moratorium

A

gap between childhood security and adult autonomy
-adolescents who do not successfully resolve this crisis can suffer from identity confusion

103
Q

Identity Development is a ________ process-more gradual/less crisis than Erikson suggested

A

lengthy
-individuals with healthy identities are flexible and adaptive

104
Q

At a minimum, identity involves ___________,________, and ________.

A

-a commitment to a vocational direction
-an ideological stance
-sexual orientation

105
Q

Narrative Approach

A

asking people to tell and evaluate their life stories

106
Q

Narrative Identities

A

stories people tell and construct to define who they are

107
Q

Crisis

A

-marcia
-individual explores alternative

108
Q

Commitment

A

personal investment

109
Q

Identity Diffusion

A

no crisis or commitments

110
Q

Identity Foreclosure

A

commitment, but no crisis

111
Q

Identity Moratorium

A

in the midst of crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined

112
Q

Identity Achievement

A

undergone a crisis and made a commitment

113
Q

Trait Theories

A

state that personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses

114
Q

Big Five Factors of Personality

A

-openness to experience
-conscientiousness
-extraversion
-agreeableness
-neuroticism

115
Q

Optimism

A

having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems

116
Q

Trait Situation Interaction

A

context or environment is also important to personality

117
Q

Ongoing study of the big five personality traits has found a great deal of _________ across the adult years

A

stability

118
Q

Emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness are __________ in early adulthood, ______ at 40-60 years, and _______ in late adulthood

A

lower; peak; decrease

119
Q

Conscientiousness shows a continuous ______ from early to late adulthood

A

increase

120
Q

Most research suggests the greatest change in personality occurs in ________.

A

early adulthood

121
Q

Personality traits continue to change through the adult years, even in late adulthood. (T/F)

A

true
-most change occurs during early adulthood
-more stability is show in personality traits after midlife

122
Q

Cumulative Personality Model

A

with time and age, people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote increased stability in personality
-personality changes that occur across adulthood move in a positive direction, toward social maturity.
-“more confident, warm, responsible, calm”

123
Q

Gender

A

characteristics related to the femininity or masculinity based on social and cultural norms

124
Q

Gender Identity

A

a sense of one’s own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being a boy/man, girl/woman, or another gender

125
Q

Gender Roles

A

a set of expectations that prescribe how girls/women or boys/men should think, act, feel

126
Q

Gender-Typing

A

acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

127
Q

Both Estrogens and Androgens are present in males and females, in different concentration. (T/F)

A

true

128
Q

Estrogens

A

sex hormones that influence the female physical sex characteristics and help to regulate the menstrual cycle

129
Q

Androgens

A

sex hormones that promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics->testosterone

130
Q

Male and Female Embryos

A

initially look alike-diverge as a result of hormonal secretions
-in males, a gene on Y directs formation of testes, which secrete testosterone

131
Q

Social Role Theory

A

psychological gender differences result from the contrasting social roles of women and men
-most world cultures-women have less power/status and control fewer resources
-social hierarchy and division of labor-important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness and nurturing

132
Q

Psychoanalytic Theory-Freud’s View

A

-phallic stage (3rd stage)-3-6 yrs.-sexual attraction to opposite sex parent
-at end-5-6 yrs.-children renounce these feelings and identify w/ the same-sex parent
-however, children adopt same-sex roles prior to 5-6 years even if are raised w/ same-sex parent

133
Q

Social Cognitive Theory

A

gender development occurs through observations and imitations as well as rewards and punishments

134
Q

Parents Social Influences

A

-action and example
-mothers and fathers often interact differently w/ children and adolescents
-parents interact differently w/ sons and daughters
*in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible
*fathers pay more attention, engage more, and promote intellectual development-sons
-mothers are more involved than fathers
-when they have sons, fathers spend more time in parenting

135
Q

Other Adult Social Influences

A

neighborhood and media

136
Q

Peer Social Influences

A

-w/age peers increasingly important
-girls acting like boys is generally more accepted than boys acting like girls (peers harder on boys than girls)
-4-12+, children spend most of their play time w/ others of their own sex
*engage in different play behaviors and activities

137
Q

Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Boys

A

-compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly-valued and reinforced
-majority of teachers are female, especially at the elementary level
-boys are more likely to have a learning disability or ADHD and drop out
-boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers
-boys’ behaviors is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic

138
Q

Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Girls

A

-girls’ compliant and quiet-cost of diminished assertiveness
-teachers-more time watching and interacting w/ boys-w/ help and instruction
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal self-esteem, but by middle school, girls’ is lower
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal math and science, but by middle school, gap begins
*girls performing lower, in same-sex schools there are no gaps, social influence of self-efficacy
-pros and cons for same-sex education-jury still out

139
Q

Cognitive Influences on Gender

A

according to social cognitive theory, observation, imitation, rewards, and punishments are the mechanisms of gender development

140
Q

Gender Schema Theory

A

gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
*gender schemas organize the world in terms of male and female
*children are motivated to act in ways that conform to gender schemas

141
Q

Gender Constancy

A

-kohlberg
-gender labeling
-gender stability
-gender consistency

142
Q

Gender Labeling

A

correctly labeling the sex (do not understand gender stability over time yet)
-by 2-3 years, toddlers are able to label others; by 2.5-3 yrs able to label the self

143
Q

Gender Stability

A

realizing that gender is stable over time
-by 5 yrs, realize that boys grow up to be dad and girls grow up to be moms

144
Q

Gender Consistency

A

understanding gender doesn’t change w/ change in appearance
-by 7 yrs, realize that gender is permanent across situations and over time

145
Q

Gender Stereotypes

A

general impressions and beliefs about girls/women, boys/men
-boys gender stereotypes more rigid than girls
-assigned traits are different and unequal in terms of social status and powers
-male/masculine traits are instrumental-being independent, aggressive, power-oriented
-female/feminine traits are expressive-being warm and sensitive
-masculinity may be the new norm

146
Q

Gender Stereotypes Developmentally

A

-present 2 yrs-increase by 4 yrs
-middle childhood-adolescence
*appearance stereotypes-more prevalent for girls
*activity and trait stereotypes-more prevalent for boys
*occupation, sports, and school tasks
-by late adolescence, gender attitudes become more flexible

147
Q

Gender Differences

A

averages-consider overlap-due to biology, sociocultural or both?

148
Q

Controversy in Gender Stereotypes

A

may be greatly exaggerated
-largest differences appear to be in motor skills, sexuality, and physical aggression
-gender differences in the brain have not been directly linked to psychological differences
-cognitive differences may have been exaggerated and/or may reflect noncognitive factors

gender behavior occurs in contexts-helping behaviors; display of emotions

cultural backgrounds influence gender socialization
-traditional gender roles continue to guide behaviors
-many western cultures are today more flexible about gender behavior and allow more diversity

149
Q

Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Females

A

aggression
-some amt or more-verbal aggression
-relational aggression-middle/late childhood
emotional
-express emotions more openly
-during adolescence-more self-disclosure
-people-oriented

150
Q

Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Males

A

aggression
-more physically aggressive-across cultures; appears early; pronounced during provocation
emotional
-experience and express more anger
-value self-assertion
-less self-regulation
-thing-oriented

151
Q

Androgyny

A

positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person

152
Q

Functional Flexibility

A

one’s gender identity being positively linked to adjustment, and competence, involving flexibility adopting to specific situations

153
Q

Transgender

A

adopting a gender identity that differs from assigned at birth
-some argue trans is a better umbrella term for a variety of gender identities and expressions others prefer gender diverse

154
Q

Cisgender

A

those whose gender identity and expression corresponds to the gender identity assigned at birth

155
Q

Gender-Intensification Hypothesis

A

psychological and behavior differences increase in early adolescence
-increased pressure to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles
-adopting a strong masculine role-associated w/ problem behaviors
-extreme gender-typed for either gender-to low school engagement and attachment

156
Q

Rapport Talk

A

conversation; a way of establishing connections and relationships
-women enjoy this

157
Q

Report Talk

A

designed to give information
-males enjoy this and display lack of interest in rapport talk

158
Q

Gender Roles among Older Adults

A

-femininity is increased and masculinity is decreased
-older men become more nurturant; while women do not necessarily become more masculine
-as they age, women face both ageism and sexism
-developing countries-poverty rate for older adult females 2x that of older adult males
-some ethnic minority groups define an older woman’s role as unimportant, whereas in others, older women’s social status improved with age

159
Q

Moral Development

A

changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong

160
Q

Intrapersonal

A

a person’s activities when not engaged in social interaction

161
Q

Interpersonal

A

social interactions and arbitrates conflict

162
Q

Heteronomous Morality

A

piaget’s stages of moral thought (cognitive)
-4-7 yrs-justice and rules as unchangeable
-judge the goodness-by considering its consequences, not intentions
-imminent justice-if a rule is broken, immediate punishment; violation is automatically connected to its punishment, and if something unfortunate happened, the person must have transgressed (done something wrong

163
Q

The transition from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality during piaget’s stages of moral though occurs at what age?

A

7-10 years

164
Q

Autonomous Morality

A

-10+ years-rules and laws created by people
-judge the goodness-by considering both intentions and consequences
-punishment occurs only if someone witnesses wrongdoing, and punishment is not inevitable

165
Q

Piaget said that __________ are critical for moral development

A

peer relations

166
Q

Preconventional Stage of Moral Thought (Kohlberg)

A

up to 9 yrs, good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments

167
Q

Conventional Stage of Moral Thought

A

early adolescence, certain standards are set by others (community)

168
Q

Postconventional Stage of Moral Though

A

early adulthood, alternative moral courses, explore options, personal moral code

169
Q

Other Points of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Thought

A

-development fostered by opportunities for perspective taking and experience conflict
-interviews-children are presented stories-characters face moral dilemma-heinz’s dilemma
-interaction is a critical part that challenges children to change their moral reasoning

170
Q

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

-too much emphasis on thought and not on behaviors
-kohlberg suggests moral thinking is deliberative, whereas Haidt suggests it is more often an intuitive reaction
-kohlberg suggest emotions have negative effects on moral reasoning, but evidence indicates emotions play an important role
-some critics claim the theory is culturally biased
-kohlberg places too much emphasis on peer relations-not enough on family
-gilligan argued based in male norms that put abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
*males-justice orientation
*females-care perspectives

171
Q

Social Cognitive Theory of Morality

A

emphasizes a distinction between moral competence and moral performance

172
Q

Moral Competencies

A

what individuals are capable of, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors

173
Q

Moral Performance

A

actual behavior, determined by motivation and rewards and incentives

174
Q

Bandura

A

-moral development-combination of social and cognitive factors-self-control

175
Q

____________, ___________, ___________ affect how individuals learn moral behaviors.

A

reinforcement, punishment, and imitation
-effectiveness of reward and punishment depends on consistency and timing-closely to behavior (swift and intensive)
-effectiveness of modeling-characteristics pf the model and cognitive skills of the observer

176
Q

Behavior is situationally _________-moral behaviors differ based in situation

A

dependent

177
Q

Resistance to _______ and _______ are keys

A

temptation and self-control

178
Q

Freud (Feelings and Emotions-Morality)

A

guilt and desire to avoid feeling guilty-foundations of moral behaviors

179
Q

Superego

A

the moral branch of personality-2 main components
-ego ideal
-conscience

180
Q

Ego Ideal

A

rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts in accordance to ideal standards approved by the parents

181
Q

Conscience

A

punishes the child for behaviors disapproved of by the parents, making the child feel guilty

182
Q

Empathy

A

an affective response to another’s feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other person’s feelings
-emotional state with a cognitive component-the ability of perspective-taking, discerning the inner psychological states of others

183
Q

In early childhood, children respond ______ to others’ distress.

A

appropriately

184
Q

Damon’s Developmental Stages In Empathy-Early Infancy

A

characterized by global empathy, the young infant’s empathic response does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others

185
Q

DDSE-1-2 yrs of Age

A

undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another’s distress grow into more genuine feelings of concern, but infants cannot translate realization of others’ unhappy feelings into effective action

186
Q

DDSE-Early Childhood

A

children become aware that every person’s perspective is unique and that some else may have a different reaction to a situation, this awareness allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person’s distress

187
Q

DDSE-10-12 years

A

children develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live in unfortunate situations. in adolescents, this newfound sensitivity may give a humanitarian flavor to the individual’s idealogical and political views

188
Q

Moral Identity

A

thoughts, behaviors, and feelings can all be involved in an individual’s moral personality
-the aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments central to their love
*behavior violating this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk

189
Q

Moral Character

A

strength of convictions, persisting, overcoming distractions and obstacles

190
Q

Moral Motivation

A

prioritizing moral values over other personal values

191
Q

Moral Virtues Emphasized

A

-honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness
-care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness
-dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness

192
Q

Moral Exemplars

A

people who have lived exemplary moral lives
-moral personality, identity, character, and virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment
-ex. gandhi and mother theresa

Psychology of Human Development (4 decks)

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