Exam 2 Material Flashcards
Piaget stressed that _______________________.
children actively construct their own cognitive worlds
-children build mental structures that help them adapt
-piaget sought to discover how children at different points in development think and how systematic changes in children’s thinking occurs
Schemas
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Babies’ schemas are structured by ________.
simple actions
Older childrens’ schemas include ______ and ________
strategies and plans for solving problems
Assimilation
using existing schemas to incorporate new information
Accommodation
adjusting schemas to fit new information and experiences
Organization
grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into higher-order, smoothly functioning cognitive system
-grouping schemes and behaviors into concepts
-continual refinements is part of development
Equilibration
shifting from one stage of thought to the next
Sensorimotor Stage
-birth-2 years
-infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as hearing and seeing) with physical, motor actions
-6 substages: simple reflexes, first habits and primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions, novelty, curiousity, and internalization of schemes
Simple Reflexes
-birth-1 month
-rooting, sucking and grasping reflexes; newborns suck reflexively when their lips are touched
First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions
-1-4 months
-repeating a body sensation first experienced by chance (ex. sucking thumb); then infants might accommodate actions by sucking their thumb differently from how they suck on a nipple
-usually brings pleasure and reward, so they keep doing it
Secondary Circular Reactions
-4-8 months
-an infant coos to make a person stay near; as the person starts to leave, the infant coos again
-come from outside, in the environment
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions
-8-12 months
-infant manipulates a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within reach (using other things to get what they want)
Tertiary Circular Reactions, Novelty, Curiousity
-12-18 months
-a block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across the ground
-children love to climb, try new things, and act on the world
Internalization of Schemes
-18-24 months
-an infant who has never thrown a temper tantrum before sees a playmate throw a tantrum; the infant retains a memory of the event, them throws one himself the next day
-deferred imitation
Object Permanence
-major task of sensorimotor stage
-the understanding that object continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
A-not-B Error
occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting a familiar hiding place (A) rather than a new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 (coordination of secondary circular reactions)
-older infants less likely to make this mistake because their concept of object permanence is more complete
Data does not always support Piaget’s claim that certain processes are crucial in ____________________.
transitions from one stage to the next
Several theorists argue that infants’ perceptual abilities are highly developed ___________.
very early in life
-certain cognitive abilities appear to be present much earlier than piaget’s theory predicts
Evidence suggests infants see objects as _______, _______, ________, and _________ from their background, possibly at birth or shortly thereafter
bounded, unitary, solid, and separate
-definitely by 3-4 months of age
-critics of these findings suggest infants have only a very rudimentary understanding
By 1.5-2 years old, infants start to develop _______.
symbolic thought
Core Knowledge Approach
infants are born w/ domain-specific innate knowledge systems
-space, number sense, object permanence, language
-strongly influenced by evolution, infants are prewired to make sense of their world
-preverbal infants may also have a built-in sense of morality (basically born w/ ability to sense and perceive the world)
-critics argue nativists neglect the infant’s social immersion to focus on what happens in the infant’s head apart from the environment; and morality may emerge through the infants’ early interactions
Preoperational Stage
-2-7 years
-children begin to recognize the world with words, images, and drawings
-form stable concepts and begin to reason
-2 substages: symbolic function substage, intuitive thought substage
-children in this stage do not yet form operations; reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously only did physically
Symbolic Function Substage
the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
-between ages 2-4, the child scribbles designs representing people, houses, cars, etc.; and begins to use language and pretend play
Egocentrism
inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective
-preschool children often show the ability to take another’s perspective on some tasks but not others
-three mountain task
Animism
belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action
Intuitive Thought Substage
the child uses primitive thought/reasoning and wants to know the answer to all sorts of questions
-between ages 4-7
-why questions signal the emergence of interest in figuring out why things are the way they are
-substage is called intuitive b/c young children seem unaware of how they know what they know
Major Tasks of Preoperational Stage
-centration
-conservation
Centration
focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of others
Conservation
awareness that altering the appearance of an object or substance does not change its basic properties
-conservation may appear earlier than piaget thought
-attention is especially important in explaining conservation
*liquid, matter, number, length
Concrete Operational Stage
-7-11 yrs
-children can perform concrete (tangible) operations and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
-classify and divide into sets and subsets and consider interrelationships
-seriation
-transivity
Seriation
ability to order stimuli along an quantitative dimension
Transivity
ability to logically combine relations to reach certain conclusions
Formal Operational Stage
-11-15 yrs
-individuals move beyond concrete operations and think in more abstract and logical ways
-develop images of ideal circumstances
-use hypothetical-deductive reasoning
-critics point out there is more individual variation in formal operational thought than piaget envisioned
-adolescent egocentrism
*imaginary audience
*personal fable
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem
-tested with pendulum
Adolescent Egocentrism
heightened self-consciousness of adolescents
-reflected in beliefs that others are as interested in them as themselves are
-usually at the start of high school
Imaginary Audience
feeling one is the center attention and sensing one is on stage
Personal Fable
sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
-danger invulnerability
-psychological invulnerability
-can be the effect of the delayed development of the prefrontal cortex
Piaget Major Idea
-assimilation
-accommodation
-object permanence
-egocentrism
-conservation
-current vision of children as active, constructive thinkers
-huge volume of research generated
-careful observations and inventive ways to discover how children act on and adapt to their world
Piaget showed cognitive changes are more likely if the _____ allows for gradual movement to the next level
context
Do all cognitive abilities come exactly as Piaget predicted?
No! Some will come earlier, some later.
-many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to master formal operations
-many adults are not formal operational thinkers
-children can be trained to reason of a higher cognitive stage; and culture and education exert a strong influence
Neopiagetians argue for more emphasis on how children how use _______, ________, and _________ to process information.
attention, memory, and strategies
Lev Vygotsky
like piaget, vygotsky emphasized that children actively construct their knowledge and understanding
-emphasized the role of SOCIAL environment in stimulating cognitive development
-society provides tools to support cognitive development
-cognitive development is shaped by the cultures in which we live
Zone of Proximal Development
range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be learned w/ guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children
-has lower limits and upper levels
Scaffolding
changing levels of support over the course of a teaching session
-more skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit child’s current performance
*when the student is learning a new tasks, the skilled person may use direct instruction
*as the student’s competence increases, the skilled person gives less guidance
________ is an important tool of scaffolding in the ZPD.
Dialogue
-through dialogue , the child’s concepts become more systematic, logical, and rational
According to Vygotsky, children use _______ both for social communication and help them to solve tasks
speech
Private Speech
audible, used for self-regulation
-as children age, they can act w/out verbalizing, and self-talk becomes internalized into inner speech
-children use private speech more often when tasks are difficult, when they have made errors, and when they are not sure how to proceed
-children who use private speech are more socially competent than those who don’t
When do adults use private speech?
when they are overwhelmed, because it slows them down and then they calm down
Teachers should begin near the ZPD’s _______, so that the child can reach the goal w/ help and move to a higher level of skill and knowledge
upper limit
-observe the child and provide support when needed
Place education instructional in a ____________ in order to allow opportunities to learn in real-world settings.
meaningful context
Tools of Mind Curriculum
transforms the classrom with Vygotskian ideas
Social Constructivist Approach
emphasis on social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction
-for piaget, the endpoint is formal operational thought; for vgotsky, the endpoint differs depending on the culture
Problems with Vygotsky’s Approach
-not specific about age-related changes
-does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to development
-overemphasized role of language
-emphasis on collaboration and guidance may have pitfalls
According to Piaget, adults and adolescents use the same type of reasoning. (T/F)
True
As young adults move into the world of work, their way of thinking may change. (T/F)
True
-idealism may decrease w/ the constraints of work realities
-often switch from acquiring knowledge to applying knowledge
Adult Cognition is _______ and ________.
reflective and relativistic
Adolescents often view the world in terms of _______.
polarities
-right vs wrong
-we vs they
-good vs bad
With age, adolescents become aware of _________ and the _________ of others
diverse opinions; multiple perspective
-absolutist, dualist thinking gives way to the reflective, relativist thinking of adulthood
_________ may impact cognitive development in adulthood.
Emotional maturity
-negative emotions may produce distorted and self-serving thinking
Emerging adults who are low in empathy, flexibility, and autonomy are more likely to engage in complex, integrated cognitive-emotional thinking. (T/F)
False, adults high in empathy, flexibility, and autonomy are more likely to engage.
-in middle age, individuals become more inwardly reflective and less context-dependent in their thinking than young adults
Post-Formal thought is described as…
-reflective, relativistic, and contextual
-provisional
-realistic
-recognized as being influenced by emotion
-critics argue research has yet to show that post-formal thought is qualitatively different than formal operation thought
Fluid Intelligence
ability to reason abstractly
-declines in middle and older adults
Crystallized Intelligence
accumulated info and verbal skills
-increases in middle and older adults
Cognitive Mechanics
speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization
-declines in middle and late adulthood
Cognitive Pragmatics
include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life.
-increases in middle and late adulthood
Fluid Mechanics (Crystallized Pragmatics)
ability to learn something new and apply it without error
-peaks between 28-32 yrs old
Current theory and research mainly focuses on specific aspects of information processing such as…
attention, memory and thinking
Information-Processing Approach
analyzes how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it
Computer Analogy between Cognition and the Brain
-sensory and perceptual systems are an “input channel”
-mental processes/operations, act on the input
-information is retrieved from memory and “displayed” by a response-output
Artificial Intelligence
field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when performed by people
Developmental Robotics
emerging field using robots in examining developmental topics and issues such as motor development, perceptual development, information processing, and language development
Attention
focusing of mental resources
Selective Attention
focus on one aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant
Divided Attention
focus on more than one activity
Sustained Attention
maintaining attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time (vigilance)
Executive Attention
planning actions, giving attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress, and dealing w/ new or difficult circumstances
_________/__________ process dominates attention in the 1st year of life
orienting/investigation
-directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment and recognizing objects and features
Habituation
decreased responsiveness to stimulus after repeated presentations
-attention during infancy
Dishabituation
recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation
-attention during infancy
Joint Attention
2 or more individuals focus on the same object or event
-frequently observed by the end of the 1st year
-infants begin to direct adults’ attention to objects
-this increases infant’s ability to learn from other people
-associated with the development of self-regulation
Joint Attention requires…
-ability to track another’s behavior, such as following a gaze
-one person directing another’s attention
-reciprocal interaction
Child’s ability to pay attention improves significantly during ________ years.
preschool
-advances in executive and sustained attention
-greatest increase in vigilance also takes place in this period
-preschool children’s control of attention is deficient in at least 2 ways
*salient versus relevant dimension
*planfulness
Salient vs. Relevant Dimension
likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task
Planfulness
use haphazard comparison strategies, not examining all details before making judgements
Preschooler’s ability to control and sustain attention related to ________
school readiness
Older children are better able to ________
shift attention
-technology and multitasking during adolescence
Attentional skills are poor during early adulthood. (T/F)
False, they have excellent attention skills
Older adults may not be able to focus on relevant information as effectively. (T/F)
True
-less adept at exercising selective attention
-as attention demands increase, the performance of older adults decreases (think about burning food while talking)
-usually perform as well as younger adults on tasks involving simple vigilance and sustained attention
-on more complex tasks, performance declines
Memory
retention of information over time
_______, ________, and _________ are basic processes required form memory
Encoding, storage, retrieval
Schema Theory
people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their memory
Schemas….
-influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
-often gaps are filled in when memories are retrieved
Implicit Memory
memory w/out conscious recollection
-ex. procedural memory
Explicit Memory
conscious memory of facts and experiences
-affected by age
Young infants’ conscious memories are _______
short-lived
-except for perceptual-motor functions-implicit memory
-infants do not show explicit memory until after 6 months
Infantile Amnesia
no recollection of life before age 3
-furthermore, by 8-9 yrs. memories from age 3 begin to fade
-immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
-can also occur b/c lack of language
Short Term Memory
retention of information for up to 30 seconds w/out rehearsal of the information
STM ______ during childhood.
increases
Older children use rehearsal more than younger children (T/F)
True
-speed of information processing is also important
Long Term Memory
relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of memories
LTM _______ as children move to middle and late childhood.
improves
Effective strategies to improve LTM are….
-elaboration
-mental images
In older children…
memory strategies->increased speed processing->increased knowledge
Working Memory
where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, problem-solving, and comprehending language
-develops slowly
Fuzzy Trace Theory
states that memory is best understood by
-verbatim memory trace-precise details of information
-gist-central idea of information
Young children tend to store and retrieve _________; then during elementary school years, they begin to use the ______ more.
verbatim traces; gist
When gist is used, ______ are _______.
fuzzy traces are built up
Gist contributes more to improved memories and reasoning because fuzzy traces are more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces. (T/F).
true
___________ and __________ are 2 important cognitive resources linked to aging
working memory and processing speed
Working memory declines from ___ to ____ years of age
65-89
-in older adults, working memory has plasticity-can be improved through training and exercise
-less efficient inhibition w/ relevant information and increased distractibility
-declines in processing speed and attention may also play a role
Speed of information processing is affected by _______.
Myelination
Older adults often take longer to retrieve __________, but usually successful
semantic information
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
individuals can’t quite retrieve familiar information
-common for older adults than younger
Source Memory
where did information come from
-declines w/ age
Prospective Memory
remembering to do things
-declines w/ age
Implicit Memory is less likely to be affected by age (T/F)
True
Thinking
manipulating and transforming information in memory to reason. reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions
Concepts
cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people-are key aspects of infants’ cognitive development
-unclear how early concept formation begins
Infants’ early categorizations are best described as ____________
Perceptual categorization
-perceptual features of objects, such as size, color, movements, and parts
-7-9 months infants begin to form conceptual categories
-1-2 years further categorization-broad and general
-gender differences in categorization
Executive Function
higher-level cognitive processes linked to prefrontal cortex development
-goal-directed and self-control
-cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, goal-setting, delay of gratification, & working memory
-linked to school readiness-may even be a better predictor than IQ
Theory of Mind
awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others
-children’s theory of mind is linked to cognitive processes
From 18 months to 3 years, children begin to understand 3 mental states….
-perceptions
-emotions
-desires
From 2-3 years, children understand that desires are related to _____ and _______
actions and simple emotions
The key development in childhood with thinking is that…..
understanding that others’ desires may differ from their own
From 3-5 years, children come to understand that the mind can represent objects and events ________ or ________.
accurately or inaccurately
-awareness of false beliefs by age 5 in most
Only beyond the preschool years do children begin to understand that _________ do not necessarily reflect _______ or ______.
behaviors; thoughts or feelings
-move from understanding beliefs can be false to realizing the same event can be open to multiple interpretations
Children who have and advanced theory of mind are _________________________.
more popular with peers and have better social skills
Children with autism show _________________________________.
deficits in theory of mind, social interaction, and communication
-recent study found that theory of mind perspective predicts severity of autism in children
-mirror neurons?
Mirror Neurons
fire when you see someone do something you usually do
Improvement in ________________ may be the most important cognitive change in adolescence
executive control (cognitive control/executive functioning)
-controlling and focusing attention
-cognitive flexibility
Although decision-making is far from perfect. adolescents are more likely to generate different options, examine a situation from a variety of perspectives, anticipate consequences, and consider the credibility of sources better than children. (T/F)
True
-decision-making is better when adolescents are calm
Factors that Provide Basis of Improvement of Critical Thinking in Adolescents
-increased speed
-automaticity
-capacity of information processing
-free up cognitive resources for other purposes
-greater breadth of content knowledge in a variety of domains
-increased ability to construct new combinations of knowledge
-greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures for obtaining and applying knowledge
*planning, considering the alternatives, and cognitive monitoring
-recognition of cognitive and memory abilities beginning around 11-12 yrs.-metamemory and metacognition
Metamemory
thinking about memories
Metacognition
thinking about thinking
Theory of Mind in Adolescents
importance of interpersonal relationships motivates adolescents to understand not only their own mind but others’ minds as well
-more likely than children to engage in recursive thinking-thinking about what other people are thinking
-better at understanding and predicting others’ behaviors
-better at interpreting others’ feelings and motives even when they are not directly observable
Expertise
extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
-shows up more among middle age or older adults (Exam question)
-process knowledge differently than novices
Experts have more accurate ________ regarding domain
metacognition
-better at identifying what they do not know
Experts rely more on _______________
accumulated experience
-often process information automatically and analyze it more efficiently
-have better strategies and shortcuts
-more creative and flexible
Theory of Mind Skills in Adulthood
do not always use these skills in everyday life, such as when failing to take into account others’ perspectives
Declines in _____________ and ___________ in older adulthood
executive functioning; theory of mind
________ and ________ act as buffers in adulthood.
knowledge and metacognition
Education, work, and health influence the cognitive functioning of older adults (T/F)
true
-education and work are positive influences
Terminal Decline
changes in cognitive functioning are linked more to distance from death or cognition-related pathology than to distance from birth
-time to death is a good predictor of cognitive decline overtime
Key Regions of the Brain Involved in Links Between Aging, Brain Health, and Cognitive Functioning
-neural circuits in prefrontal cortex
-use of both hemispheres compensates for age-related declines
-functioning of the hippocampus declines but to a lesser degree than functioning of the frontal lobe
-decline is more evident for retrieval than encoding
-functioning suffers as attentional demands increase
-cortical thickness in the frontoparietal network predicts executive function
-use it or lose it!-take care of brain->slower decline
Intelligence
the ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences
G-Theorists
believe that there is one general underlying factor that provides the foundation for intelligence
-speed of processing may predict intelligence score
Binet (Intelligence)
-stressed that the core of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes
-original tests were created to assess those who could not benefit from formal education
-memory, imagery, comprehension, judgement
Mental Age
individual’s level of mental development compared to others
-bright children have a considerably higher MA than their CA
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
MA/CAx100
Stanford-Binet 5
-analyzes fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory
-scored by comparing one’s performance with the performance of others at the same age
-one of the most widely used individual tests of intelligence
What is the average IQ?
100
-constant at all ages
Normal Distribution
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve w/ a majority of cases falling in the middle of the possible range
Intellectual Disabilities
-IQ of 70 and below (2.3%)
-organic-disease or disorder (ex. down’s syndrome, metabolic disorders, brain disease) have <50 IQ
-familial/cultural-below average intellectual environment have IQ between 55-70
-mild- 55-70 (89%)
-moderate- 44-54 (6%)
-severe- 25-39 (4%)
-profound- <25 (1%)
Giftedness
-IQ of 130+
-not linked to mental disorders
-genius-145+
-characteristics-precocious, passion to master, march to their own drummer, deliberate practice
-noticed advanced prior to formal learning
-not all gifted children go on to be gifted adults
Wechsler Intelligence Scales
-WISC-V-wechsler test scale for children (6-16 years)
-WAIS-IV-wechsler adult intelligence scale
-WPPSI-IV-wechsler preschool and primary scale for intelligence (2.5-7 yrs)
Raven’s Progressive Matrices
-fill in blanks with graphics
-visual
-culturally fair?
Infant’s Intelligence Scales
-less verbal
-contain elements related to perceptual-motor development & social interactions
-bayley-III scales of infant development
-fagan test of infant intelligence
Although IQ scores can fluctuate throughout childhood, it remains connected w/ ______________
earlier points in development
Infant __________/____________ predicts IQ.
habituation/dishabituation
______ influences IQ.
language
Intelligence is influenced by _____
1000+ genes-polygenetic
Intelligence is highly _________ but _____ also plays a role-parent/child communication and education.
heritable; environment
________ disappear when controlling for SES
ethnic differences
____________ may also play a role in intelligence
Neurological speed
Flynn Effect
generational increases in IQ scores
Creativity
ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up w/ unique, good solutions to the problem
-not the same thing as intelligence
-creative thinking appears to be declining
Creativity requires ___________ thinking
divergent
-“outside of the box”-many solutions
-most IQ tests require convergent thinking-only one right answer
Emotional Intelligence
focuses on interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of successful functioning
-originally proposed by Salovey and Mayer
-IQ isn’t everything
-better predictor of success
-many people w/ gifted and genius IQ work for those with average intelligence
-3rd best predictor of academic performance
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
-analytical-booksmarts, academic, problem-solving
-creative
-practical-streetsmarts
-more recently, added the importance of goal setting and the construct of wisdom
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence
-verbal
-mathematical
-spatial
-bodily-kinesthetic
-musical
-interpersonal
-intrapersonal
-naturalistic
-more?-existential, moral, teaching,-pedagogical
Horn’s Cross-Sectional Study
-changes through the lifespan
-declines in fluid intelligence
*abstract reasoning
*mechanics
-increases in crystallized intelligence
*accumulated knowledge and verbal
*pragmatics
Language
a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, based on a system of symbols
-consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them
All languages have….
-infinite generativity-the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
-organizational rules that describe the way language works
Noam Chomsky
-linguist who proposed that humans are prewired for language
*children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), an endowment that enables detection of certain features and rules of a language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics
-theoretical-not physical
-supported by the uniformity of language milestones across languages and cultures, evidence of creating language even in the absence of appropriate input, and biological foundations
-does not explain the entirety of language acquisition
Broca’s Area
-responsible for speech production
-left frontal lobe near temporal area
-broca’s aphasia-difficulties in production of words
Wernicke’s Area
-responsible for language comprehension
-left temporal lobe near occipital area
-wernicke’s aphasia-difficulty in language comprehension and “word salad”
Aphasia
damages causes this, a loss or impairment of language processing
Phonology
the sound system of the language-the sounds and combinations
Phoneme
the basic unit of sound in a language
Morphology
the units of meaning involved in word formation
-rules of morphology dictate the way meaningful units-morphemes-can be combined into words
-not all morphemes are words by themselves
Syntax
ways in which words are combined to form phrases and sentences
Semantics
the meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics
the appropriate use of language in different contexts
-pragmatic rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another
Key Milestones in Language Development-Infancy
-birth-crying
-2-4 months-cooing begins
-5 months-understands first word-receptive language
-6 months-babbling begins (phonemes from native and non-native language)
-7-11 months-change from universal linguist to language-specific listener
-8-12 months-uses gestures, such as showing and pointing, comprehension of words appears
-13 months-first word spoken-parents often think this happens earlier
-18 months-vocabulary spurt starts
-18-24 months-use 2-word utterance; rapid expansion of understanding of words
From 0-6 months, infants learning language are often referred to as…
citizens of the world
Overextension
applying a word to objects that are incorrect for the word’s meaning
-ex. calling all animals doggie
Underextension
applying a word too narrowly
ex. only calling family dog doggie and not other dogs
Telegraphic Speech
the use of short and precise words w/out grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives
Infants and young children cannot effectively learn language from television or videos-_________ is necessary
joint attention
Child-Directed Speech
language spoke in higher pitch than normal, w/ simple words and sentences-predicts greater word prediction at 2 yrs.
Recasting
rephrasing something the child has said in a fully grammatical sentence
Expanding
restating what the child has said, in a linguistically sophisticated form to add information
Labeling
identifying the names of objects
Parents and teachers who pay attention to what children try to say, expand on children’s utterances, read to them, and label things in the environment are _______
providing valuable benefits
By the time children move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate knowledge of _______ rules.
morphology
-using plural and possessive nouns
-appropriate endings on verbs
-use of prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb “to be”
-overregulation
Overregulation
extending rules to irregular cases
-ex. gooses for geese, goed for went
In early childhood, there are gains in ________, _______, and _________.
syntax, semantics, and pragmatics
-continues through middle to late childhood
Fast Mapping
making a connection between a word and its referent after limited exposure to a word
4-5 yrs-children learn to change their ___________ to suit the situation
speech style
In middle to late childhood, children are accompanied by metalinguistic awareness:
knowledge about language, allowing children “to think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them”
Reading Development
-whole-language approach
-phonics approach
-children benefit from both, but instruction in PHONICS needs to be emphasized
-children benefit from shared reading
Whole-Language Approach
recognize whole words-use context of what they are reading to guess the meaning of words
Phonics Approach
basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds
Language from Adolescence to Adulthood
-more advanced logical thinking allows adolescents to understand complex literary works
*understand satire (use of with & irony) and
metaphors
-use of dialect with peers-jargon and slang
-continued increase of vocabulary
-personal linguistic style becomes part of one’s identity
(T/F) Older adults have difficulty retrieving words and understanding language in certain contexts
True
-TOT phenomenon
-when speech is rapid, competing stimuli are present, and they cannot see their partner
-hearing loss may contribute to these difficulties
(T/F) Older adults’ speech is typically higher in volume, faster, more precisely articulated, and very fluent-and is still adequate for daily use
False
-speech is lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent (more pauses, fillers, repetition, and corrections)-but it is still adequate for daily use
(T/F) older adults have slower information-processing speeds and declines in working memory
True
-word finding/generation difficulties-among the earliest signs of alzheimer’s disease
-bilingualism may delay the onset of alzheimer diease
