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Psychology of Human Development > Exam 2 Material > Flashcards

Exam 2 Material Flashcards

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1
Q

Piaget stressed that _______________________.

A

children actively construct their own cognitive worlds
-children build mental structures that help them adapt
-piaget sought to discover how children at different points in development think and how systematic changes in children’s thinking occurs

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2
Q

Schemas

A

actions or mental representations that organize knowledge

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3
Q

Babies’ schemas are structured by ________.

A

simple actions

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4
Q

Older childrens’ schemas include ______ and ________

A

strategies and plans for solving problems

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5
Q

Assimilation

A

using existing schemas to incorporate new information

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6
Q

Accommodation

A

adjusting schemas to fit new information and experiences

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7
Q

Organization

A

grouping isolated behaviors and thoughts into higher-order, smoothly functioning cognitive system
-grouping schemes and behaviors into concepts
-continual refinements is part of development

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8
Q

Equilibration

A

shifting from one stage of thought to the next

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9
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

-birth-2 years
-infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as hearing and seeing) with physical, motor actions
-6 substages: simple reflexes, first habits and primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, coordination of secondary circular reactions, tertiary circular reactions, novelty, curiousity, and internalization of schemes

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10
Q

Simple Reflexes

A

-birth-1 month
-rooting, sucking and grasping reflexes; newborns suck reflexively when their lips are touched

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11
Q

First Habits and Primary Circular Reactions

A

-1-4 months
-repeating a body sensation first experienced by chance (ex. sucking thumb); then infants might accommodate actions by sucking their thumb differently from how they suck on a nipple
-usually brings pleasure and reward, so they keep doing it

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12
Q

Secondary Circular Reactions

A

-4-8 months
-an infant coos to make a person stay near; as the person starts to leave, the infant coos again
-come from outside, in the environment

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13
Q

Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions

A

-8-12 months
-infant manipulates a stick in order to bring an attractive toy within reach (using other things to get what they want)

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14
Q

Tertiary Circular Reactions, Novelty, Curiousity

A

-12-18 months
-a block can be made to fall, spin, hit another object, and slide across the ground
-children love to climb, try new things, and act on the world

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15
Q

Internalization of Schemes

A

-18-24 months
-an infant who has never thrown a temper tantrum before sees a playmate throw a tantrum; the infant retains a memory of the event, them throws one himself the next day
-deferred imitation

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16
Q

Object Permanence

A

-major task of sensorimotor stage
-the understanding that object continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched

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17
Q

A-not-B Error

A

occurs when infants make the mistake of selecting a familiar hiding place (A) rather than a new hiding place (B) as they progress into substage 4 (coordination of secondary circular reactions)
-older infants less likely to make this mistake because their concept of object permanence is more complete

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18
Q

Data does not always support Piaget’s claim that certain processes are crucial in ____________________.

A

transitions from one stage to the next

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19
Q

Several theorists argue that infants’ perceptual abilities are highly developed ___________.

A

very early in life
-certain cognitive abilities appear to be present much earlier than piaget’s theory predicts

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20
Q

Evidence suggests infants see objects as _______, _______, ________, and _________ from their background, possibly at birth or shortly thereafter

A

bounded, unitary, solid, and separate
-definitely by 3-4 months of age
-critics of these findings suggest infants have only a very rudimentary understanding

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21
Q

By 1.5-2 years old, infants start to develop _______.

A

symbolic thought

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22
Q

Core Knowledge Approach

A

infants are born w/ domain-specific innate knowledge systems
-space, number sense, object permanence, language
-strongly influenced by evolution, infants are prewired to make sense of their world
-preverbal infants may also have a built-in sense of morality (basically born w/ ability to sense and perceive the world)
-critics argue nativists neglect the infant’s social immersion to focus on what happens in the infant’s head apart from the environment; and morality may emerge through the infants’ early interactions

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23
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

-2-7 years
-children begin to recognize the world with words, images, and drawings
-form stable concepts and begin to reason
-2 substages: symbolic function substage, intuitive thought substage
-children in this stage do not yet form operations; reversible mental actions that allow children to do mentally what they previously only did physically

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24
Q

Symbolic Function Substage

A

the child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
-between ages 2-4, the child scribbles designs representing people, houses, cars, etc.; and begins to use language and pretend play

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25
Q

Egocentrism

A

inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective
-preschool children often show the ability to take another’s perspective on some tasks but not others
-three mountain task

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26
Q

Animism

A

belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

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27
Q

Intuitive Thought Substage

A

the child uses primitive thought/reasoning and wants to know the answer to all sorts of questions
-between ages 4-7
-why questions signal the emergence of interest in figuring out why things are the way they are
-substage is called intuitive b/c young children seem unaware of how they know what they know

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28
Q

Major Tasks of Preoperational Stage

A

-centration
-conservation

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29
Q

Centration

A

focusing of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of others

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30
Q

Conservation

A

awareness that altering the appearance of an object or substance does not change its basic properties
-conservation may appear earlier than piaget thought
-attention is especially important in explaining conservation
*liquid, matter, number, length

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31
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A

-7-11 yrs
-children can perform concrete (tangible) operations and they can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
-classify and divide into sets and subsets and consider interrelationships
-seriation
-transivity

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32
Q

Seriation

A

ability to order stimuli along an quantitative dimension

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33
Q

Transivity

A

ability to logically combine relations to reach certain conclusions

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34
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A

-11-15 yrs
-individuals move beyond concrete operations and think in more abstract and logical ways
-develop images of ideal circumstances
-use hypothetical-deductive reasoning
-critics point out there is more individual variation in formal operational thought than piaget envisioned
-adolescent egocentrism
*imaginary audience
*personal fable

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35
Q

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

A

develop hypotheses, or best guesses, and systematically deduce which is the best path to follow in solving the problem
-tested with pendulum

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36
Q

Adolescent Egocentrism

A

heightened self-consciousness of adolescents
-reflected in beliefs that others are as interested in them as themselves are
-usually at the start of high school

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37
Q

Imaginary Audience

A

feeling one is the center attention and sensing one is on stage

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38
Q

Personal Fable

A

sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility
-danger invulnerability
-psychological invulnerability
-can be the effect of the delayed development of the prefrontal cortex

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39
Q

Piaget Major Idea

A

-assimilation
-accommodation
-object permanence
-egocentrism
-conservation
-current vision of children as active, constructive thinkers
-huge volume of research generated
-careful observations and inventive ways to discover how children act on and adapt to their world

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40
Q

Piaget showed cognitive changes are more likely if the _____ allows for gradual movement to the next level

A

context

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41
Q

Do all cognitive abilities come exactly as Piaget predicted?

A

No! Some will come earlier, some later.
-many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to master formal operations
-many adults are not formal operational thinkers
-children can be trained to reason of a higher cognitive stage; and culture and education exert a strong influence

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42
Q

Neopiagetians argue for more emphasis on how children how use _______, ________, and _________ to process information.

A

attention, memory, and strategies

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43
Q

Lev Vygotsky

A

like piaget, vygotsky emphasized that children actively construct their knowledge and understanding
-emphasized the role of SOCIAL environment in stimulating cognitive development
-society provides tools to support cognitive development
-cognitive development is shaped by the cultures in which we live

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44
Q

Zone of Proximal Development

A

range of tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone but can be learned w/ guidance and assistance from adults or more-skilled children
-has lower limits and upper levels

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45
Q

Scaffolding

A

changing levels of support over the course of a teaching session
-more skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit child’s current performance
*when the student is learning a new tasks, the skilled person may use direct instruction
*as the student’s competence increases, the skilled person gives less guidance

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46
Q

________ is an important tool of scaffolding in the ZPD.

A

Dialogue
-through dialogue , the child’s concepts become more systematic, logical, and rational

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47
Q

According to Vygotsky, children use _______ both for social communication and help them to solve tasks

A

speech

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48
Q

Private Speech

A

audible, used for self-regulation
-as children age, they can act w/out verbalizing, and self-talk becomes internalized into inner speech
-children use private speech more often when tasks are difficult, when they have made errors, and when they are not sure how to proceed
-children who use private speech are more socially competent than those who don’t

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49
Q

When do adults use private speech?

A

when they are overwhelmed, because it slows them down and then they calm down

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50
Q

Teachers should begin near the ZPD’s _______, so that the child can reach the goal w/ help and move to a higher level of skill and knowledge

A

upper limit
-observe the child and provide support when needed

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51
Q

Place education instructional in a ____________ in order to allow opportunities to learn in real-world settings.

A

meaningful context

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52
Q

Tools of Mind Curriculum

A

transforms the classrom with Vygotskian ideas

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53
Q

Social Constructivist Approach

A

emphasis on social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction
-for piaget, the endpoint is formal operational thought; for vgotsky, the endpoint differs depending on the culture

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54
Q

Problems with Vygotsky’s Approach

A

-not specific about age-related changes
-does not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional capabilities contribute to development
-overemphasized role of language
-emphasis on collaboration and guidance may have pitfalls

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55
Q

According to Piaget, adults and adolescents use the same type of reasoning. (T/F)

A

True

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56
Q

As young adults move into the world of work, their way of thinking may change. (T/F)

A

True
-idealism may decrease w/ the constraints of work realities
-often switch from acquiring knowledge to applying knowledge

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57
Q

Adult Cognition is _______ and ________.

A

reflective and relativistic

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58
Q

Adolescents often view the world in terms of _______.

A

polarities
-right vs wrong
-we vs they
-good vs bad

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59
Q

With age, adolescents become aware of _________ and the _________ of others

A

diverse opinions; multiple perspective
-absolutist, dualist thinking gives way to the reflective, relativist thinking of adulthood

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60
Q

_________ may impact cognitive development in adulthood.

A

Emotional maturity
-negative emotions may produce distorted and self-serving thinking

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61
Q

Emerging adults who are low in empathy, flexibility, and autonomy are more likely to engage in complex, integrated cognitive-emotional thinking. (T/F)

A

False, adults high in empathy, flexibility, and autonomy are more likely to engage.
-in middle age, individuals become more inwardly reflective and less context-dependent in their thinking than young adults

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62
Q

Post-Formal thought is described as…

A

-reflective, relativistic, and contextual
-provisional
-realistic
-recognized as being influenced by emotion
-critics argue research has yet to show that post-formal thought is qualitatively different than formal operation thought

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63
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

ability to reason abstractly
-declines in middle and older adults

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64
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

accumulated info and verbal skills
-increases in middle and older adults

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65
Q

Cognitive Mechanics

A

speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization
-declines in middle and late adulthood

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66
Q

Cognitive Pragmatics

A

include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life.
-increases in middle and late adulthood

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67
Q

Fluid Mechanics (Crystallized Pragmatics)

A

ability to learn something new and apply it without error
-peaks between 28-32 yrs old

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68
Q

Current theory and research mainly focuses on specific aspects of information processing such as…

A

attention, memory and thinking

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69
Q

Information-Processing Approach

A

analyzes how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it

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70
Q

Computer Analogy between Cognition and the Brain

A

-sensory and perceptual systems are an “input channel”
-mental processes/operations, act on the input
-information is retrieved from memory and “displayed” by a response-output

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71
Q

Artificial Intelligence

A

field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when performed by people

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72
Q

Developmental Robotics

A

emerging field using robots in examining developmental topics and issues such as motor development, perceptual development, information processing, and language development

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73
Q

Attention

A

focusing of mental resources

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74
Q

Selective Attention

A

focus on one aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant

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75
Q

Divided Attention

A

focus on more than one activity

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76
Q

Sustained Attention

A

maintaining attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time (vigilance)

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77
Q

Executive Attention

A

planning actions, giving attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress, and dealing w/ new or difficult circumstances

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78
Q

_________/__________ process dominates attention in the 1st year of life

A

orienting/investigation
-directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment and recognizing objects and features

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79
Q

Habituation

A

decreased responsiveness to stimulus after repeated presentations
-attention during infancy

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80
Q

Dishabituation

A

recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation
-attention during infancy

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81
Q

Joint Attention

A

2 or more individuals focus on the same object or event
-frequently observed by the end of the 1st year
-infants begin to direct adults’ attention to objects
-this increases infant’s ability to learn from other people
-associated with the development of self-regulation

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82
Q

Joint Attention requires…

A

-ability to track another’s behavior, such as following a gaze
-one person directing another’s attention
-reciprocal interaction

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83
Q

Child’s ability to pay attention improves significantly during ________ years.

A

preschool
-advances in executive and sustained attention
-greatest increase in vigilance also takes place in this period
-preschool children’s control of attention is deficient in at least 2 ways
*salient versus relevant dimension
*planfulness

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84
Q

Salient vs. Relevant Dimension

A

likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task

85
Q

Planfulness

A

use haphazard comparison strategies, not examining all details before making judgements

86
Q

Preschooler’s ability to control and sustain attention related to ________

A

school readiness

87
Q

Older children are better able to ________

A

shift attention
-technology and multitasking during adolescence

88
Q

Attentional skills are poor during early adulthood. (T/F)

A

False, they have excellent attention skills

89
Q

Older adults may not be able to focus on relevant information as effectively. (T/F)

A

True
-less adept at exercising selective attention
-as attention demands increase, the performance of older adults decreases (think about burning food while talking)
-usually perform as well as younger adults on tasks involving simple vigilance and sustained attention
-on more complex tasks, performance declines

90
Q

Memory

A

retention of information over time

91
Q

_______, ________, and _________ are basic processes required form memory

A

Encoding, storage, retrieval

92
Q

Schema Theory

A

people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their memory

93
Q

Schemas….

A

-influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information
-often gaps are filled in when memories are retrieved

94
Q

Implicit Memory

A

memory w/out conscious recollection
-ex. procedural memory

95
Q

Explicit Memory

A

conscious memory of facts and experiences
-affected by age

96
Q

Young infants’ conscious memories are _______

A

short-lived
-except for perceptual-motor functions-implicit memory
-infants do not show explicit memory until after 6 months

97
Q

Infantile Amnesia

A

no recollection of life before age 3
-furthermore, by 8-9 yrs. memories from age 3 begin to fade
-immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
-can also occur b/c lack of language

98
Q

Short Term Memory

A

retention of information for up to 30 seconds w/out rehearsal of the information

99
Q

STM ______ during childhood.

A

increases

100
Q

Older children use rehearsal more than younger children (T/F)

A

True
-speed of information processing is also important

101
Q

Long Term Memory

A

relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of memories

102
Q

LTM _______ as children move to middle and late childhood.

A

improves

103
Q

Effective strategies to improve LTM are….

A

-elaboration
-mental images

104
Q

In older children…

A

memory strategies->increased speed processing->increased knowledge

105
Q

Working Memory

A

where individuals manipulate and assemble information when making decisions, problem-solving, and comprehending language
-develops slowly

106
Q

Fuzzy Trace Theory

A

states that memory is best understood by
-verbatim memory trace-precise details of information
-gist-central idea of information

107
Q

Young children tend to store and retrieve _________; then during elementary school years, they begin to use the ______ more.

A

verbatim traces; gist

108
Q

When gist is used, ______ are _______.

A

fuzzy traces are built up

109
Q

Gist contributes more to improved memories and reasoning because fuzzy traces are more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces. (T/F).

A

true

110
Q

___________ and __________ are 2 important cognitive resources linked to aging

A

working memory and processing speed

111
Q

Working memory declines from ___ to ____ years of age

A

65-89
-in older adults, working memory has plasticity-can be improved through training and exercise
-less efficient inhibition w/ relevant information and increased distractibility
-declines in processing speed and attention may also play a role

112
Q

Speed of information processing is affected by _______.

A

Myelination

113
Q

Older adults often take longer to retrieve __________, but usually successful

A

semantic information

114
Q

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

A

individuals can’t quite retrieve familiar information
-common for older adults than younger

115
Q

Source Memory

A

where did information come from
-declines w/ age

116
Q

Prospective Memory

A

remembering to do things
-declines w/ age

117
Q

Implicit Memory is less likely to be affected by age (T/F)

A

True

118
Q

Thinking

A

manipulating and transforming information in memory to reason. reflect, think critically, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions

119
Q

Concepts

A

cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, ideas, or people-are key aspects of infants’ cognitive development
-unclear how early concept formation begins

120
Q

Infants’ early categorizations are best described as ____________

A

Perceptual categorization
-perceptual features of objects, such as size, color, movements, and parts
-7-9 months infants begin to form conceptual categories
-1-2 years further categorization-broad and general
-gender differences in categorization

121
Q

Executive Function

A

higher-level cognitive processes linked to prefrontal cortex development
-goal-directed and self-control
-cognitive inhibition, cognitive flexibility, goal-setting, delay of gratification, & working memory
-linked to school readiness-may even be a better predictor than IQ

122
Q

Theory of Mind

A

awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others
-children’s theory of mind is linked to cognitive processes

123
Q

From 18 months to 3 years, children begin to understand 3 mental states….

A

-perceptions
-emotions
-desires

124
Q

From 2-3 years, children understand that desires are related to _____ and _______

A

actions and simple emotions

125
Q

The key development in childhood with thinking is that…..

A

understanding that others’ desires may differ from their own

126
Q

From 3-5 years, children come to understand that the mind can represent objects and events ________ or ________.

A

accurately or inaccurately
-awareness of false beliefs by age 5 in most

127
Q

Only beyond the preschool years do children begin to understand that _________ do not necessarily reflect _______ or ______.

A

behaviors; thoughts or feelings
-move from understanding beliefs can be false to realizing the same event can be open to multiple interpretations

128
Q

Children who have and advanced theory of mind are _________________________.

A

more popular with peers and have better social skills

129
Q

Children with autism show _________________________________.

A

deficits in theory of mind, social interaction, and communication
-recent study found that theory of mind perspective predicts severity of autism in children
-mirror neurons?

130
Q

Mirror Neurons

A

fire when you see someone do something you usually do

131
Q

Improvement in ________________ may be the most important cognitive change in adolescence

A

executive control (cognitive control/executive functioning)
-controlling and focusing attention
-cognitive flexibility

132
Q

Although decision-making is far from perfect. adolescents are more likely to generate different options, examine a situation from a variety of perspectives, anticipate consequences, and consider the credibility of sources better than children. (T/F)

A

True
-decision-making is better when adolescents are calm

133
Q

Factors that Provide Basis of Improvement of Critical Thinking in Adolescents

A

-increased speed
-automaticity
-capacity of information processing
-free up cognitive resources for other purposes
-greater breadth of content knowledge in a variety of domains
-increased ability to construct new combinations of knowledge
-greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures for obtaining and applying knowledge
*planning, considering the alternatives, and cognitive monitoring
-recognition of cognitive and memory abilities beginning around 11-12 yrs.-metamemory and metacognition

134
Q

Metamemory

A

thinking about memories

135
Q

Metacognition

A

thinking about thinking

136
Q

Theory of Mind in Adolescents

A

importance of interpersonal relationships motivates adolescents to understand not only their own mind but others’ minds as well
-more likely than children to engage in recursive thinking-thinking about what other people are thinking
-better at understanding and predicting others’ behaviors
-better at interpreting others’ feelings and motives even when they are not directly observable

137
Q

Expertise

A

extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain
-shows up more among middle age or older adults (Exam question)
-process knowledge differently than novices

138
Q

Experts have more accurate ________ regarding domain

A

metacognition
-better at identifying what they do not know

139
Q

Experts rely more on _______________

A

accumulated experience
-often process information automatically and analyze it more efficiently
-have better strategies and shortcuts
-more creative and flexible

140
Q

Theory of Mind Skills in Adulthood

A

do not always use these skills in everyday life, such as when failing to take into account others’ perspectives

141
Q

Declines in _____________ and ___________ in older adulthood

A

executive functioning; theory of mind

142
Q

________ and ________ act as buffers in adulthood.

A

knowledge and metacognition

143
Q

Education, work, and health influence the cognitive functioning of older adults (T/F)

A

true
-education and work are positive influences

144
Q

Terminal Decline

A

changes in cognitive functioning are linked more to distance from death or cognition-related pathology than to distance from birth
-time to death is a good predictor of cognitive decline overtime

145
Q

Key Regions of the Brain Involved in Links Between Aging, Brain Health, and Cognitive Functioning

A

-neural circuits in prefrontal cortex
-use of both hemispheres compensates for age-related declines
-functioning of the hippocampus declines but to a lesser degree than functioning of the frontal lobe
-decline is more evident for retrieval than encoding
-functioning suffers as attentional demands increase
-cortical thickness in the frontoparietal network predicts executive function
-use it or lose it!-take care of brain->slower decline

146
Q

Intelligence

A

the ability to solve problems and adapt and learn from experiences

147
Q

G-Theorists

A

believe that there is one general underlying factor that provides the foundation for intelligence
-speed of processing may predict intelligence score

148
Q

Binet (Intelligence)

A

-stressed that the core of intelligence consists of complex cognitive processes
-original tests were created to assess those who could not benefit from formal education
-memory, imagery, comprehension, judgement

149
Q

Mental Age

A

individual’s level of mental development compared to others
-bright children have a considerably higher MA than their CA

150
Q

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A

MA/CAx100

151
Q

Stanford-Binet 5

A

-analyzes fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial reasoning, working memory
-scored by comparing one’s performance with the performance of others at the same age
-one of the most widely used individual tests of intelligence

152
Q

What is the average IQ?

A

100
-constant at all ages

153
Q

Normal Distribution

A

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve w/ a majority of cases falling in the middle of the possible range

154
Q

Intellectual Disabilities

A

-IQ of 70 and below (2.3%)
-organic-disease or disorder (ex. down’s syndrome, metabolic disorders, brain disease) have <50 IQ
-familial/cultural-below average intellectual environment have IQ between 55-70
-mild- 55-70 (89%)
-moderate- 44-54 (6%)
-severe- 25-39 (4%)
-profound- <25 (1%)

155
Q

Giftedness

A

-IQ of 130+
-not linked to mental disorders
-genius-145+
-characteristics-precocious, passion to master, march to their own drummer, deliberate practice
-noticed advanced prior to formal learning
-not all gifted children go on to be gifted adults

156
Q

Wechsler Intelligence Scales

A

-WISC-V-wechsler test scale for children (6-16 years)
-WAIS-IV-wechsler adult intelligence scale
-WPPSI-IV-wechsler preschool and primary scale for intelligence (2.5-7 yrs)

157
Q

Raven’s Progressive Matrices

A

-fill in blanks with graphics
-visual
-culturally fair?

158
Q

Infant’s Intelligence Scales

A

-less verbal
-contain elements related to perceptual-motor development & social interactions
-bayley-III scales of infant development
-fagan test of infant intelligence

159
Q

Although IQ scores can fluctuate throughout childhood, it remains connected w/ ______________

A

earlier points in development

160
Q

Infant __________/____________ predicts IQ.

A

habituation/dishabituation

161
Q

______ influences IQ.

A

language

162
Q

Intelligence is influenced by _____

A

1000+ genes-polygenetic

163
Q

Intelligence is highly _________ but _____ also plays a role-parent/child communication and education.

A

heritable; environment

164
Q

________ disappear when controlling for SES

A

ethnic differences

165
Q

____________ may also play a role in intelligence

A

Neurological speed

166
Q

Flynn Effect

A

generational increases in IQ scores

167
Q

Creativity

A

ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up w/ unique, good solutions to the problem
-not the same thing as intelligence
-creative thinking appears to be declining

168
Q

Creativity requires ___________ thinking

A

divergent
-“outside of the box”-many solutions
-most IQ tests require convergent thinking-only one right answer

169
Q

Emotional Intelligence

A

focuses on interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects of successful functioning
-originally proposed by Salovey and Mayer
-IQ isn’t everything
-better predictor of success
-many people w/ gifted and genius IQ work for those with average intelligence
-3rd best predictor of academic performance

170
Q

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

A

-analytical-booksmarts, academic, problem-solving
-creative
-practical-streetsmarts
-more recently, added the importance of goal setting and the construct of wisdom

171
Q

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

A

-verbal
-mathematical
-spatial
-bodily-kinesthetic
-musical
-interpersonal
-intrapersonal
-naturalistic
-more?-existential, moral, teaching,-pedagogical

172
Q

Horn’s Cross-Sectional Study

A

-changes through the lifespan
-declines in fluid intelligence
*abstract reasoning
*mechanics
-increases in crystallized intelligence
*accumulated knowledge and verbal
*pragmatics

173
Q

Language

A

a form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed, based on a system of symbols
-consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them

174
Q

All languages have….

A

-infinite generativity-the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules
-organizational rules that describe the way language works

175
Q

Noam Chomsky

A

-linguist who proposed that humans are prewired for language
*children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), an endowment that enables detection of certain features and rules of a language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics
-theoretical-not physical
-supported by the uniformity of language milestones across languages and cultures, evidence of creating language even in the absence of appropriate input, and biological foundations
-does not explain the entirety of language acquisition

176
Q

Broca’s Area

A

-responsible for speech production
-left frontal lobe near temporal area
-broca’s aphasia-difficulties in production of words

177
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

-responsible for language comprehension
-left temporal lobe near occipital area
-wernicke’s aphasia-difficulty in language comprehension and “word salad”

178
Q

Aphasia

A

damages causes this, a loss or impairment of language processing

179
Q

Phonology

A

the sound system of the language-the sounds and combinations

180
Q

Phoneme

A

the basic unit of sound in a language

181
Q

Morphology

A

the units of meaning involved in word formation
-rules of morphology dictate the way meaningful units-morphemes-can be combined into words
-not all morphemes are words by themselves

182
Q

Syntax

A

ways in which words are combined to form phrases and sentences

183
Q

Semantics

A

the meaning of words and sentences

184
Q

Pragmatics

A

the appropriate use of language in different contexts
-pragmatic rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another

185
Q

Key Milestones in Language Development-Infancy

A

-birth-crying
-2-4 months-cooing begins
-5 months-understands first word-receptive language
-6 months-babbling begins (phonemes from native and non-native language)
-7-11 months-change from universal linguist to language-specific listener
-8-12 months-uses gestures, such as showing and pointing, comprehension of words appears
-13 months-first word spoken-parents often think this happens earlier
-18 months-vocabulary spurt starts
-18-24 months-use 2-word utterance; rapid expansion of understanding of words

186
Q

From 0-6 months, infants learning language are often referred to as…

A

citizens of the world

187
Q

Overextension

A

applying a word to objects that are incorrect for the word’s meaning
-ex. calling all animals doggie

188
Q

Underextension

A

applying a word too narrowly
ex. only calling family dog doggie and not other dogs

189
Q

Telegraphic Speech

A

the use of short and precise words w/out grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives

190
Q

Infants and young children cannot effectively learn language from television or videos-_________ is necessary

A

joint attention

191
Q

Child-Directed Speech

A

language spoke in higher pitch than normal, w/ simple words and sentences-predicts greater word prediction at 2 yrs.

192
Q

Recasting

A

rephrasing something the child has said in a fully grammatical sentence

193
Q

Expanding

A

restating what the child has said, in a linguistically sophisticated form to add information

194
Q

Labeling

A

identifying the names of objects

195
Q

Parents and teachers who pay attention to what children try to say, expand on children’s utterances, read to them, and label things in the environment are _______

A

providing valuable benefits

196
Q

By the time children move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate knowledge of _______ rules.

A

morphology
-using plural and possessive nouns
-appropriate endings on verbs
-use of prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb “to be”
-overregulation

197
Q

Overregulation

A

extending rules to irregular cases
-ex. gooses for geese, goed for went

198
Q

In early childhood, there are gains in ________, _______, and _________.

A

syntax, semantics, and pragmatics
-continues through middle to late childhood

199
Q

Fast Mapping

A

making a connection between a word and its referent after limited exposure to a word

200
Q

4-5 yrs-children learn to change their ___________ to suit the situation

A

speech style

201
Q

In middle to late childhood, children are accompanied by metalinguistic awareness:

A

knowledge about language, allowing children “to think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them”

202
Q

Reading Development

A

-whole-language approach
-phonics approach
-children benefit from both, but instruction in PHONICS needs to be emphasized
-children benefit from shared reading

203
Q

Whole-Language Approach

A

recognize whole words-use context of what they are reading to guess the meaning of words

204
Q

Phonics Approach

A

basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds

205
Q

Language from Adolescence to Adulthood

A

-more advanced logical thinking allows adolescents to understand complex literary works
*understand satire (use of with & irony) and
metaphors
-use of dialect with peers-jargon and slang
-continued increase of vocabulary
-personal linguistic style becomes part of one’s identity

206
Q

(T/F) Older adults have difficulty retrieving words and understanding language in certain contexts

A

True
-TOT phenomenon
-when speech is rapid, competing stimuli are present, and they cannot see their partner
-hearing loss may contribute to these difficulties

207
Q

(T/F) Older adults’ speech is typically higher in volume, faster, more precisely articulated, and very fluent-and is still adequate for daily use

A

False
-speech is lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent (more pauses, fillers, repetition, and corrections)-but it is still adequate for daily use

208
Q

(T/F) older adults have slower information-processing speeds and declines in working memory

A

True
-word finding/generation difficulties-among the earliest signs of alzheimer’s disease
-bilingualism may delay the onset of alzheimer diease

Psychology of Human Development (4 decks)

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