exam 4, chapters 42, 46, 49, 54, 55 Flashcards
all animals must be able to respond to
environmental stimuli
all animals use:
sensory receptors, motor effectors
sensory receptors
detect a stimulus, and carry impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
motor effectors
respond to it, and carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
your nervous system links sensory receptors and motor effectors
connects you to sensing things and responding it
peripheral nervous system is made up of
sensory and motor neurons
somatic nervous system stimulates
skeletal muscles to contract and make up the somatic nervous system
autonomic nervous system stimulates
smooth and cardiac muscles as well as glands
parasympathetic
calming down, not panicking, does digestion
sympathetic
fight or flight
parasympathetic and sympathetic
work together
sensory neurons
carry impulses to the central nervous system (cold/hot, soft/hard)
motor neurons
carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands (how your body reacts)
interneurons
neurons that deal with learning and memory, you. get used to it
dendrites
roots coming off, receiving a signal
axon
long extension that sends the signal to another neuron
myelin sheath
covers the axon, speeds the signal through the axon
neurons lack
a resting membrane potential
action potential
sends the signal, the actual signals that move along an axon
graded potentials
determines if it should send the signal
gated channels
induce opening and cause changes in cell membrane permeability
voltage-gated Na+ channels
at rest the activation gate is closed, the inactivation gate is open, the Na+ causes the membrane to depolarize
voltage-gated K channels
single activation gate that is closed in the resting state, kicking out the K+ repolarizes the membrane
phases of action potential
rising, falling, and hyperpolarization
synapses
connect between neurons, where axons connect to dendrites
presynaptic cells
transmit action potential
the postsynaptic cell
receives action potential
electrical synapses
touching, making the direct connection, can pass the electrical movement
electrical synapses involve direct cytoplasmic connections formed by gap junctions between
the pre and post synaptic neurons
chemical synapses
when there is a gap, neurons don’t touch, and action potential triggers an influx of Ca+
- synaptic vesicles fuse
with the cell membrane
- neurotransmitter is
released by exocytosis
- diffuses to the other side of the gap and binds
to chemical or ligand-gated receptor proteins
- produces graded potentials in the
postsynaptic membrane
- neurotransmitter action is terminated by
enzymatic digestion
diencephalon
producing hormones
thalamus
receiving cues and responding to them
hypothalamus
emotions
telecephalon
located in the front of the forearm, cerebrum, you think things and respond to things, linked to associative activity
cerebrum
split into the right and left cerebral hemispheres
corpus callosum
the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body
hemispheres are divided into lobes
frontal, pariental, temporal, occipital
frontal
cognition and thinking
pariental
sensory, touch, navigation
temporal
sound, listening
occipital
visual cues
cerebrum cortex
goey ribbed part of the brain, why you are smart, contains 10% of all neurons in the brain
spinal cord
cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbones
meninges
protective covering around the vertebral column
the knee-jerk reflex is
monosynaptic
most reflexes in vertebrates involve a
single interneuron
3 types of digestive systems
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores
most multicellular animals digest food
extracellularly
Cnidarians and flatworms have a
gastrovascular cavity
gastrovascular cavity
only one opening and no specialized regions
specialization occurs when the digestive tract has a
separate mouth and anus
mouth and pharynx:
entry
esophagus
delivers food to the stomach
stomach
preliminary digestion, the majority of digestion occurs here
small intestine
digestion and absorption, mostly absorption
large intestine
absorption of water and minerals, mostly absorption
cloaca (same hole to pee or poop) or rectum
expel water
liver
produces bile, breakdown of fats/lipids
gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile
pancreas
releases insulin, produces pancreatic juice, digestive enzymes, and bicarbonate buffer
birds lack ___ and have ___
teeth, beaks
birds break up food into the
two-chambered stomach
gizzard
muscular chamber that uses ingested pebbles to break up food like teeth
carnivores have
sharp, pointed teeth that lack flat grinding surfaces
herbivores
large flat teeth suited for grinding cellulose cell walls of plant tissues
humans have
both carnivore and herbivore teeth
saliva
moistens and lubricates the food
salivary amylase
initiates the breakdown of starch
salivation is controlled by the
nervous system
swallowing starts as a
voluntary action
swallowing continues under
involuntary control
when food is ready to be swallowed
the tongue moves it to the back of the mouth
elevation of the
larynx pushes the glottis against the epiglottis
larynx
voice box
when the glottis pushes up
it allows you to swallow
when the glottis is down
it allows you to breathe
the esophagus actively moves a
bolus through peristalsis
bolus
slightly digested food
peristalsis
squeezing and pushing down the food
the sphincter opens
to allow food to enter the stomach
humans lack
a true sphincter
the stomach has 2 types of secretory cells
mucus-secreting cells, parietal cells, and chief cells
mucus-secreting cells
lubricating cells, allowing them to slide through
parietal cells
usually 1st, lower the pH of your stomach, and secrete HCl and intrinsic factor
chief cells
secrete pepsinogen, become active in an acidic environment
chief and parietal cells need an
acidic environment for it to occur
inside the stomach:
breaking down the food
a low ___ in the stomach helps to
pH, denature food proteins
a low pH in the stomach activates
pepsin (chief cells)
chyme
a mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice that is found in the stomach
no significant digestion of _____ and ____ occur in the _____
carbohydrates and fats, stomach
chyme leaves the stomach through the
pyloric sphincter to enter the small intestine
the small intestine is about
4.5m long, small diameter
small intestine consists of
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
duodenum
sharp turns in the small intestine
the small intestine recieves
chyme from the stomach, digestive enzymes and bicarbonate buffer from the pancreas, bile from the liver and gallbladder
the small intestine is the longest site of
absorption
the large intestine is
much shorter than the small intestine, but has a larger diameter
the large intestine functions to
reabsorb water, remaining electrolytes and vitamin K
the large intestine prepares water for
expulsion
water in a multicellular body is distributed between
intracellular and extracellular components
important ions
Na+, Cl-, Ca+, Mg2+, K+
osmoconformers
conforming to the environment
freshwater and marine are
osmoconformers
positives of being an osmoconformer
not wasting energy
negatives of being an osmoconformer
highly dependent on the environment
osmoregulators
regulating their osmotic pressure, isolated from the environment
positives of being an osmoconformer
do not depend on the environment
negatives of osmoconformers
takes a lot of energy
freshwater vertebrates are
hypertonic to their environment, water wants to come into the cell, have adaptations to prevent water from entering their bodies
hypertonic
higher concentration in their fluid than the outside
terrestrial vertebrates (humans) have a
higher concentration of water than the surrounding air
urinary/osmoregulatory systems have evolved to help
them remain water (kidneys)
nitrogenous wastes
ammonia, urea, and uric acid
amino acids and nucleic acids are
catabolized into nitrogenous wastes
deamination
removal of amino (NH2-) group, combines with H+ to form ammonia
ammonia is more
water-soluble, making it easy to pee out
elasmobranches, adult amphibians, and mammals convert
ammonia into urea
birds, reptiles, and insects convert
ammonia into water-insoluble uric acid
mammals also produce
uric acid
uricase
enzyme that converts uric acid into a more soluble derivative called allantoin
arthritis is caused by
excessive accumulation of uric acid called gout
majority of molecules filtrated out are
reabsorbed
mammalian kidneys are made up of
nephrons
urine drains from each kidney through a
ureter into a urinary bladder
filtration
fluid in the blood is filtered out the glomerulus into the tubules system
reabsorption
selective movement of solutes out of the filtrate back into the blood via peritubular capillaries
secretion
movement of substances from blood into the extracellular fluid then into the filtrate in the tubular system
excretion
kidneys eliminate a variety of potentially harmful substances that animals eat and drink
urine contains
nitrogenous wastes
ecology
study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments
key elements of the environment
temperature, water, sunlight, substrate
short-term responses
variety of ways to cope
long-term responses
natural selection can operate to make a population better adapted to the environment
physiological responses
sweating, increase erythrocyte production, making “antifreeze”
morphological capabilities
endotherms have adaptations that minimize energy expenditure
behavioral responses
moving from one habitat to another
allen’s rule of reduced surface area
mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to conserve energy
populations
same species, same time, same place
3 characteristics of population ecology
population range, pattern of spacing of individuals, how population changes in size through time
random spacing
individuals do not interact strongly with one another, not common in nature
uniform spacing
behavioral interactions, resource competition
clumped spacing
uneven distribution of responses, common in nature
dispersal
populations increase and send out many disperers
disperers
help populations expand
small populations may have
fewer dispersers
source-sink metapopulations
some areas are suitable for long-term habitat, others are not
continuous colonization of empty patches prevents
long-term extinction
number of births is directly related to the
number of females
generation times
an average interval between the birth of an individual and the birth of its offspring
populations with short generations can
increase in size quicker than populations with long generation
small body size=
small generation time
age structure is determined by
the number of individuals in a different age group
cohort
a group of individuals of the same age
fecundity
the ability to reproduce a number of offspring in a certain time period, success in reproduction
mortality
death rate
survivorship
percent of an original population that survives to a given age
R-selected populations
produce a lot of offspring but dont take care of them
K-selected populations
have smaller amounts of offspring but take care of them as they grow
R-selected populations are
more common on our planet
long-lived species
delay reproduction
the advantage of long-lived species is that
juveniles gain experience before the high cost of reproduction
short lived species
reproduce early
carry capacity
the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support
the biotic potential of any population is
exponential, even when the rate of increase remains constant
resource availability
when resources are limited, the cost of reproduction is high
selection will favor individuals who can
compete and utilize resources efficiently
density-dependent (high density environments)
disease, food availability, attract predators
density-independent
weather events, bottleneck effects
community
group of populations
communities are characterized by
species richness, species abundance, primary productivity
species richness
number of species in a population
species abundance
number of individuals
primary productivity
base of productivity
niche
the total of all the ways an organism uses the resources of its environment, how you contribute to a community
ecological niche
competition
interspecific competition
two species, one resource, and not enough of it to go around
interference competition
physical interactions over access to resources, physically blocking something
exploitative competition
consuming the same resources
fundamental niche
you can sit in any chair in the room
realized niche
cant sit in the chair that someone is sitting in
competitive exclusion
two species compete for a limited resource, the species that uses the resource more efficiently will eventually eliminate the other locally
efficient with food
longer life
resource partitioning
subdivided niche to avoid direct competition
prey populations can have
explosions and crashes
predation provides strong selective pressure on the
prey populations
plants adapt predations by evolving
mechanisms to defend themselves
herbivores coevolve to continue
eating plants
mimicry
allows one species to capitalize on the defensive strategies of another
bastesian mimicry
mimics look like distasteful species, harmless but look harmful
mullerian miimicry
several unrelated but poisonous species come to resemble one another, both dangerous, and both start to resemble one another
3 major types of symbiosis
commensalism, mutualism, parasitism
commensalism
benefits one species and is neutral to the other
mutualism
benefits both species
coevolution
flowering plants and insects
parasitism
benefits one species at the expense of another
external parasites
ectoparasites, parasitoids
ectoparasites
feed on the exterior surface of an organism
parasitoids
insects that lay eggs on living hosts
predators choice depends partly on the
relative abundance of the prey options
predation reduces
competition
keystone species
one matters more in an environment than others
communities are always
in flux
communities are constantly changing as a result of
climate changes, species invasions, and disturbance events
