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biology 2 > exam 4, chapters 42, 46, 49, 54, 55 > Flashcards

exam 4, chapters 42, 46, 49, 54, 55 Flashcards

1
Q

all animals must be able to respond to

A

environmental stimuli

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2
Q

all animals use:

A

sensory receptors, motor effectors

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3
Q

sensory receptors

A

detect a stimulus, and carry impulses from sensory receptors to the central nervous system

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4
Q

motor effectors

A

respond to it, and carry impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

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5
Q

your nervous system links sensory receptors and motor effectors

A

connects you to sensing things and responding it

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6
Q

peripheral nervous system is made up of

A

sensory and motor neurons

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7
Q

somatic nervous system stimulates

A

skeletal muscles to contract and make up the somatic nervous system

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8
Q

autonomic nervous system stimulates

A

smooth and cardiac muscles as well as glands

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9
Q

parasympathetic

A

calming down, not panicking, does digestion

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10
Q

sympathetic

A

fight or flight

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11
Q

parasympathetic and sympathetic

A

work together

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12
Q

sensory neurons

A

carry impulses to the central nervous system (cold/hot, soft/hard)

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13
Q

motor neurons

A

carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands (how your body reacts)

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14
Q

interneurons

A

neurons that deal with learning and memory, you. get used to it

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15
Q

dendrites

A

roots coming off, receiving a signal

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16
Q

axon

A

long extension that sends the signal to another neuron

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17
Q

myelin sheath

A

covers the axon, speeds the signal through the axon

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18
Q

neurons lack

A

a resting membrane potential

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19
Q

action potential

A

sends the signal, the actual signals that move along an axon

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20
Q

graded potentials

A

determines if it should send the signal

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21
Q

gated channels

A

induce opening and cause changes in cell membrane permeability

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22
Q

voltage-gated Na+ channels

A

at rest the activation gate is closed, the inactivation gate is open, the Na+ causes the membrane to depolarize

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23
Q

voltage-gated K channels

A

single activation gate that is closed in the resting state, kicking out the K+ repolarizes the membrane

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24
Q

phases of action potential

A

rising, falling, and hyperpolarization

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25
Q

synapses

A

connect between neurons, where axons connect to dendrites

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26
Q

presynaptic cells

A

transmit action potential

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27
Q

the postsynaptic cell

A

receives action potential

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28
Q

electrical synapses

A

touching, making the direct connection, can pass the electrical movement

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29
Q

electrical synapses involve direct cytoplasmic connections formed by gap junctions between

A

the pre and post synaptic neurons

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30
Q

chemical synapses

A

when there is a gap, neurons don’t touch, and action potential triggers an influx of Ca+

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31
Q
  1. synaptic vesicles fuse
A

with the cell membrane

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32
Q
  1. neurotransmitter is
A

released by exocytosis

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33
Q
  1. diffuses to the other side of the gap and binds
A

to chemical or ligand-gated receptor proteins

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34
Q
  1. produces graded potentials in the
A

postsynaptic membrane

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35
Q
  1. neurotransmitter action is terminated by
A

enzymatic digestion

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36
Q

diencephalon

A

producing hormones

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37
Q

thalamus

A

receiving cues and responding to them

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38
Q

hypothalamus

A

emotions

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39
Q

telecephalon

A

located in the front of the forearm, cerebrum, you think things and respond to things, linked to associative activity

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40
Q

cerebrum

A

split into the right and left cerebral hemispheres

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41
Q

corpus callosum

A

the right hemisphere controls the left side of the body

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42
Q

hemispheres are divided into lobes

A

frontal, pariental, temporal, occipital

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43
Q

frontal

A

cognition and thinking

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44
Q

pariental

A

sensory, touch, navigation

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45
Q

temporal

A

sound, listening

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46
Q

occipital

A

visual cues

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47
Q

cerebrum cortex

A

goey ribbed part of the brain, why you are smart, contains 10% of all neurons in the brain

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48
Q

spinal cord

A

cable of neurons extending from the brain down through the backbones

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49
Q

meninges

A

protective covering around the vertebral column

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50
Q

the knee-jerk reflex is

A

monosynaptic

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51
Q

most reflexes in vertebrates involve a

A

single interneuron

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52
Q

3 types of digestive systems

A

herbivores, carnivores, omnivores

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53
Q

most multicellular animals digest food

A

extracellularly

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54
Q

Cnidarians and flatworms have a

A

gastrovascular cavity

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55
Q

gastrovascular cavity

A

only one opening and no specialized regions

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56
Q

specialization occurs when the digestive tract has a

A

separate mouth and anus

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57
Q

mouth and pharynx:

A

entry

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58
Q

esophagus

A

delivers food to the stomach

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59
Q

stomach

A

preliminary digestion, the majority of digestion occurs here

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60
Q

small intestine

A

digestion and absorption, mostly absorption

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61
Q

large intestine

A

absorption of water and minerals, mostly absorption

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62
Q

cloaca (same hole to pee or poop) or rectum

A

expel water

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63
Q

liver

A

produces bile, breakdown of fats/lipids

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64
Q

gallbladder

A

stores and concentrates bile

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65
Q

pancreas

A

releases insulin, produces pancreatic juice, digestive enzymes, and bicarbonate buffer

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66
Q

birds lack ___ and have ___

A

teeth, beaks

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67
Q

birds break up food into the

A

two-chambered stomach

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68
Q

gizzard

A

muscular chamber that uses ingested pebbles to break up food like teeth

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69
Q

carnivores have

A

sharp, pointed teeth that lack flat grinding surfaces

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70
Q

herbivores

A

large flat teeth suited for grinding cellulose cell walls of plant tissues

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71
Q

humans have

A

both carnivore and herbivore teeth

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72
Q

saliva

A

moistens and lubricates the food

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73
Q

salivary amylase

A

initiates the breakdown of starch

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74
Q

salivation is controlled by the

A

nervous system

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75
Q

swallowing starts as a

A

voluntary action

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76
Q

swallowing continues under

A

involuntary control

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77
Q

when food is ready to be swallowed

A

the tongue moves it to the back of the mouth

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78
Q

elevation of the

A

larynx pushes the glottis against the epiglottis

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79
Q

larynx

A

voice box

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80
Q

when the glottis pushes up

A

it allows you to swallow

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81
Q

when the glottis is down

A

it allows you to breathe

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82
Q

the esophagus actively moves a

A

bolus through peristalsis

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83
Q

bolus

A

slightly digested food

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84
Q

peristalsis

A

squeezing and pushing down the food

85
Q

the sphincter opens

A

to allow food to enter the stomach

86
Q

humans lack

A

a true sphincter

87
Q

the stomach has 2 types of secretory cells

A

mucus-secreting cells, parietal cells, and chief cells

88
Q

mucus-secreting cells

A

lubricating cells, allowing them to slide through

89
Q

parietal cells

A

usually 1st, lower the pH of your stomach, and secrete HCl and intrinsic factor

90
Q

chief cells

A

secrete pepsinogen, become active in an acidic environment

91
Q

chief and parietal cells need an

A

acidic environment for it to occur

92
Q

inside the stomach:

A

breaking down the food

93
Q

a low ___ in the stomach helps to

A

pH, denature food proteins

94
Q

a low pH in the stomach activates

A

pepsin (chief cells)

95
Q

chyme

A

a mixture of partially digested food and gastric juice that is found in the stomach

96
Q

no significant digestion of _____ and ____ occur in the _____

A

carbohydrates and fats, stomach

97
Q

chyme leaves the stomach through the

A

pyloric sphincter to enter the small intestine

98
Q

the small intestine is about

A

4.5m long, small diameter

99
Q

small intestine consists of

A

duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

100
Q

duodenum

A

sharp turns in the small intestine

101
Q

the small intestine recieves

A

chyme from the stomach, digestive enzymes and bicarbonate buffer from the pancreas, bile from the liver and gallbladder

102
Q

the small intestine is the longest site of

A

absorption

103
Q

the large intestine is

A

much shorter than the small intestine, but has a larger diameter

104
Q

the large intestine functions to

A

reabsorb water, remaining electrolytes and vitamin K

105
Q

the large intestine prepares water for

A

expulsion

106
Q

water in a multicellular body is distributed between

A

intracellular and extracellular components

107
Q

important ions

A

Na+, Cl-, Ca+, Mg2+, K+

108
Q

osmoconformers

A

conforming to the environment

109
Q

freshwater and marine are

A

osmoconformers

110
Q

positives of being an osmoconformer

A

not wasting energy

111
Q

negatives of being an osmoconformer

A

highly dependent on the environment

112
Q

osmoregulators

A

regulating their osmotic pressure, isolated from the environment

113
Q

positives of being an osmoconformer

A

do not depend on the environment

114
Q

negatives of osmoconformers

A

takes a lot of energy

115
Q

freshwater vertebrates are

A

hypertonic to their environment, water wants to come into the cell, have adaptations to prevent water from entering their bodies

116
Q

hypertonic

A

higher concentration in their fluid than the outside

117
Q

terrestrial vertebrates (humans) have a

A

higher concentration of water than the surrounding air

118
Q

urinary/osmoregulatory systems have evolved to help

A

them remain water (kidneys)

119
Q

nitrogenous wastes

A

ammonia, urea, and uric acid

120
Q

amino acids and nucleic acids are

A

catabolized into nitrogenous wastes

121
Q

deamination

A

removal of amino (NH2-) group, combines with H+ to form ammonia

122
Q

ammonia is more

A

water-soluble, making it easy to pee out

123
Q

elasmobranches, adult amphibians, and mammals convert

A

ammonia into urea

124
Q

birds, reptiles, and insects convert

A

ammonia into water-insoluble uric acid

125
Q

mammals also produce

A

uric acid

126
Q

uricase

A

enzyme that converts uric acid into a more soluble derivative called allantoin

127
Q

arthritis is caused by

A

excessive accumulation of uric acid called gout

128
Q

majority of molecules filtrated out are

A

reabsorbed

129
Q

mammalian kidneys are made up of

A

nephrons

130
Q

urine drains from each kidney through a

A

ureter into a urinary bladder

131
Q

filtration

A

fluid in the blood is filtered out the glomerulus into the tubules system

132
Q

reabsorption

A

selective movement of solutes out of the filtrate back into the blood via peritubular capillaries

133
Q

secretion

A

movement of substances from blood into the extracellular fluid then into the filtrate in the tubular system

134
Q

excretion

A

kidneys eliminate a variety of potentially harmful substances that animals eat and drink

135
Q

urine contains

A

nitrogenous wastes

136
Q

ecology

A

study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments

137
Q

key elements of the environment

A

temperature, water, sunlight, substrate

138
Q

short-term responses

A

variety of ways to cope

139
Q

long-term responses

A

natural selection can operate to make a population better adapted to the environment

140
Q

physiological responses

A

sweating, increase erythrocyte production, making “antifreeze”

141
Q

morphological capabilities

A

endotherms have adaptations that minimize energy expenditure

142
Q

behavioral responses

A

moving from one habitat to another

143
Q

allen’s rule of reduced surface area

A

mammals from colder climates have shorter ears and limbs to conserve energy

144
Q

populations

A

same species, same time, same place

145
Q

3 characteristics of population ecology

A

population range, pattern of spacing of individuals, how population changes in size through time

146
Q

random spacing

A

individuals do not interact strongly with one another, not common in nature

147
Q

uniform spacing

A

behavioral interactions, resource competition

148
Q

clumped spacing

A

uneven distribution of responses, common in nature

149
Q

dispersal

A

populations increase and send out many disperers

150
Q

disperers

A

help populations expand

151
Q

small populations may have

A

fewer dispersers

152
Q

source-sink metapopulations

A

some areas are suitable for long-term habitat, others are not

153
Q

continuous colonization of empty patches prevents

A

long-term extinction

154
Q

number of births is directly related to the

A

number of females

155
Q

generation times

A

an average interval between the birth of an individual and the birth of its offspring

156
Q

populations with short generations can

A

increase in size quicker than populations with long generation

157
Q

small body size=

A

small generation time

158
Q

age structure is determined by

A

the number of individuals in a different age group

159
Q

cohort

A

a group of individuals of the same age

160
Q

fecundity

A

the ability to reproduce a number of offspring in a certain time period, success in reproduction

161
Q

mortality

A

death rate

162
Q

survivorship

A

percent of an original population that survives to a given age

163
Q

R-selected populations

A

produce a lot of offspring but dont take care of them

164
Q

K-selected populations

A

have smaller amounts of offspring but take care of them as they grow

165
Q

R-selected populations are

A

more common on our planet

166
Q

long-lived species

A

delay reproduction

167
Q

the advantage of long-lived species is that

A

juveniles gain experience before the high cost of reproduction

168
Q

short lived species

A

reproduce early

169
Q

carry capacity

A

the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support

170
Q

the biotic potential of any population is

A

exponential, even when the rate of increase remains constant

171
Q

resource availability

A

when resources are limited, the cost of reproduction is high

172
Q

selection will favor individuals who can

A

compete and utilize resources efficiently

173
Q

density-dependent (high density environments)

A

disease, food availability, attract predators

174
Q

density-independent

A

weather events, bottleneck effects

175
Q

community

A

group of populations

176
Q

communities are characterized by

A

species richness, species abundance, primary productivity

177
Q

species richness

A

number of species in a population

178
Q

species abundance

A

number of individuals

179
Q

primary productivity

A

base of productivity

180
Q

niche

A

the total of all the ways an organism uses the resources of its environment, how you contribute to a community

181
Q

ecological niche

A

competition

182
Q

interspecific competition

A

two species, one resource, and not enough of it to go around

183
Q

interference competition

A

physical interactions over access to resources, physically blocking something

184
Q

exploitative competition

A

consuming the same resources

185
Q

fundamental niche

A

you can sit in any chair in the room

186
Q

realized niche

A

cant sit in the chair that someone is sitting in

187
Q

competitive exclusion

A

two species compete for a limited resource, the species that uses the resource more efficiently will eventually eliminate the other locally

188
Q

efficient with food

A

longer life

189
Q

resource partitioning

A

subdivided niche to avoid direct competition

190
Q

prey populations can have

A

explosions and crashes

191
Q

predation provides strong selective pressure on the

A

prey populations

192
Q

plants adapt predations by evolving

A

mechanisms to defend themselves

193
Q

herbivores coevolve to continue

A

eating plants

194
Q

mimicry

A

allows one species to capitalize on the defensive strategies of another

195
Q

bastesian mimicry

A

mimics look like distasteful species, harmless but look harmful

196
Q

mullerian miimicry

A

several unrelated but poisonous species come to resemble one another, both dangerous, and both start to resemble one another

197
Q

3 major types of symbiosis

A

commensalism, mutualism, parasitism

198
Q

commensalism

A

benefits one species and is neutral to the other

199
Q

mutualism

A

benefits both species

200
Q

coevolution

A

flowering plants and insects

201
Q

parasitism

A

benefits one species at the expense of another

202
Q

external parasites

A

ectoparasites, parasitoids

203
Q

ectoparasites

A

feed on the exterior surface of an organism

204
Q

parasitoids

A

insects that lay eggs on living hosts

205
Q

predators choice depends partly on the

A

relative abundance of the prey options

206
Q

predation reduces

A

competition

207
Q

keystone species

A

one matters more in an environment than others

208
Q

communities are always

A

in flux

209
Q

communities are constantly changing as a result of

A

climate changes, species invasions, and disturbance events

biology 2 (4 decks)

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